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This article is about the genocide in 1929–1934. For the conflict between Italian forces and indigenous rebels in 1923–1932, see Second Italo-Senussi War.
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The Libyan genocide, also known in Libya as Shar (Arabic: شر, lit. 'Evil'),[1] was the genocide of Libyan Arabs and the systematic destruction of Libyan culture during and after the Second Italo-Senussi War between 1929 and 1934. During this period, between 20,000 and 100,000 Libyans were killed by Italian colonial authorities under Benito Mussolini. Near 50% of the population of Cyrenaica was deported and interned in concentration camps, resulting in a population decline from 225,000 to 142,000 civilians.

This period was marked by a brutal campaign characterized by widespread major Italian war crimes, including ethnic cleansing, mass killings, forced displacement, forced death marches, settler colonialism, the use of chemical weapons, the use of concentration camps, mass executions of civilians and refusing to take prisoners of war and instead executing surrendering combatants. The indigenous population, particularly the nomadic Bedouin tribes, faced extreme violence and suppression in an attempt to quell Senussi resistance to colonial rule, whose population was reduced by half.

News about the genocide was heavily suppressed by Fascist Italy, evidence was largely destroyed, making remaining files in Italian concentration camps in Libya difficult to find even after the end of Fascist rule in Italy in 1945. The only camp with a record of prisoners is the Swani al-Tariya camp. However, the mass graves still attest to the genocide. It was not until 2008 that Italy apologized for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during its colonization of Libya.[2]

The Libyan Genocide also has a direct link to the Holocaust, as the death camps were visited by Nazi notables like Himmler and Goering.

Prelude

During the Italian invasion of Libya in 1911, the Italians were portrayed as the liberators of Libya from Ottoman rule, concurrently concealing any evidence of repression campaigns and massacres during the war, such as the ones following the battle and massacre at Shar al-Shatt. On the other side, the Arabs were described as 'beasts' that needed to be civilized by the Europeans.[3] Reportedly, both Italian officers and men had declared that "we must destroy the Arabs". Official reports into the atrocities emphasized racial hatred, vindictiveness and "psychological flaws" as their underlying causes. Such brutal Italian war crimes in Libya were primarily associated with the Fascist era, but they also occurred during the Liberal period, albeit in a less systematic manner.[4] Upon gaining entry in Libya, Italy promptly initiated racist and discriminatory practices of class division, including the construction of concentration camps, where approximately 50,000 Libyans lost their lives during the 1930s. Libya was of strategic importance to Italy, thus prompting the latter to annex the former as its "Fourth Shore" to allow Italians an expanded trade route area which greatly benefited Italy.[5]

Motivation

Italy's colonisation of Libya was motivated by a desire to compete with other European powers, who had their own colonies. Libya was one of the last African countries to be colonised, along with Abyssinia. Additionally, Libya was viewed as the Fourth Shore, Mussolini's concept of the a Greater Italy that harkens back to the Roman Empire. Libya in other words was viewed as a settler colonial state, akin to French Algeria.[6]

Italo Balbo, field marshal and an architect of the colony, planned on settling 500,000 Italians by the 1960s,[7] particularly in the Jabal al Akhdar region ("Green Mountains" in Arabic) by displacing the local Libyan population to the desert. Jabal al Akhdar was chosen for settlement as it is a fertile region in an otherwise dry location, providing conditions for agriculture.[8]

Death marches

The most common case of forced displacement was from the Jebel Al-Akthar region, to make way for Italian settlers, to Sirte, an inhospitable city on the edge of the Sahara desert. There were also several displacements from oases to the Sahara desert proper; such as such as the Magharba, and Zuwayya, Fawakhir, Firjan, and Hussun tribes who lived near Ijdabiyya, west of Benghazi. These displacements were harsh with a high mortality rate, done under the coercion of the Italian Army who were given orders to kill any person or animal who did not hurry. These arduous marches, if survived, took Libyans to their final destination in one of the main 16 concentration camps. Coupling these marches with the mass famine that was induced by the intentional killing of nearly all cattle, drove many to die.[citation needed][copyright violation?]

Death camps

Evans-Pritchard, an expert on Cyrenaica, wrote, "In this bleak country, in the summer of 1930, 80,000 men, women, and children, and 600,000 beasts were herded into the smallest camps possible. Hunger, disease, and broken hearts took a heavy toll of the imprisoned population. Bedouins died in a cage. Loss of livestock was also great, for the beasts had insufficient grazing near the camps on which to support life, and the herds, already decimated in the fighting are almost wiped out by the camps."[9]

It was in Slug camp that Omar al-Mukhtar was hanged in front of 20,000 interned civilians, to send a message to the native people, on September 11, 1931. A shrine to commemorate Omar al-Mukhtar is found there today, after a Libyan located his body by witnessing al-Mukhtar's secret burial by the Italians after he was hung.[10]

Genocide

On 20 June 1930, Italian military officer Pietro Badoglio called for the annihilation of the entire population of Cyrenaica, and wrote to General Rodolfo Graziani: "As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be the ruin of the subdued population...But now the course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica must perish".[11]

According to Melvin Page and Penny Sonneberg, Benito Mussolini was the person ultimately responsible for "putting 80,000 Libyans in concentration camps, blocking and poisoning wells, building a network of garrisons in troubled areas, bombing villages with mustard gas, killing and confiscating hundreds of thousands of sheep and camels, and constructing a 200-mile barbed wire fence between Libya and Egypt to prevent rebel border crossings".[5]

By 1931, more than half of the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 16 Italian concentration camps where many died as result of overcrowding, lack of water, food and medicine. Italian colonial authorities forcibly expelled 100,000 Eastern Libyan Bedouins, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were given to Italian colonist settlers, an action that has been described as ethnic cleansing.[12] Less than 40,000 Libyan survivors left Italian refugee camps following their release in 1934.[3]

Destruction of animal populations in Cyrenaica, 1910–1933[13]
1910 1926 1933
Sheep and Goats 126,000 80,000 22,000
Camels 83,000 75,000 2,600
Horses 27,000 14,000 1,000
Cattle 23,000 10,000 2,000

Death toll

Estimates of the total number of deaths vary substantially,[14] and range between 20,000 and 100,000.[a]. The total population of Cyrenaica declined by around one third,[20] a decrease of approximately 83,000.[21] In addition to the deaths in the camps and during deportation, 12,000 people were executed on suspicion of being rebels in 1930 and 1931.[14]

Assessment of the total death toll is difficult. Much of the documentation was destroyed by the Italian colonial authorities, the archives remain difficult to search, and news of the atrocities was suppressed.[22] Varying estimations of the Libyan population are also a problem; the Ottoman census of 1911, which reports populations of roughly 200,000 in Cyrenaica,[11][23][20][note 1] and 576,000 in Tripolitania and Fezzan,[24], did not include many people outside of the towns and cities, as resources and political control were lacking.[23] Numbers given for the total Libyan population in 1911, just prior to the Italo-Turkish War, range between 800,000, 1.0 million,[14] and 1.5 million.[25][note 2] At the start of the "pacification" campaign in 1929, the Cyrenaican population was estimated at 225,000[27], and by the end had decreased to 142,000[22]. By the mid-late 1930s, the population of Libya was estimated at between 700,000 and 888,400,[24] which included an increasing number of Italian settlers—64,000 by 1936 and 110,000 by 1940.[28]

Many Libyans also went into exile, further contributing to the significant decline in population, estimated to be at least 20,000.[11][29] Ali Abdullatif Ahmida writes that some 250,000 Libyans left the country during the entire period from the start of the Italo-Turkish war in 1911 to the end of Italian governance in 1943,[30] following the success of the Tunisian campaign.

The Bedouin population of Libya was reduced by half, with around 100,000 dead or in exile,[31] though Ilan Pappé suggests that this 100,000 was killed either directly or in the camps.[32]

After coming to power in Libya in 1969, Muammar Gaddafi frequently claimed that half of Libya's total population had died during Italian colonialism, up 750,000 Libyans, though this is without evidence.[24][33] During the Allied administration of Libya prior to independence, the United Nations estimated that 250,000 to 300,000 Libyan natives died under the Italians between 1912 and 1942 from all non-natural causes (e.g. combat, execution, disease, famine, and thirst).[14][34] Ali Abdullatif Ahmida suggests this figure is higher, at 500,000.[35]

Links to the Holocaust

There are ample direct connection between the Libyan genocide and the Holocaust. Italian-sponsored Arabic language publications, most notably "Libya al-Musawara", and films from the colonial period indicate numerous visits to Libya by officials from Nazi Germany. Historian Ali Abdullatif Ahmida stated that the extreme violence carried out against Libyans by Italian fascists served as a blueprint for the atrocities that Nazi Germans later committed in Europe.[36]

In April 1939, Nazi German Field Marshal Hermann Göring made an official visit to Tripoli, where he held discussions with the Italian colonial governor general of Libya, Italo Balbo. Upon witnessing the cleansing of indigenous people and the settling of 20,000 Italian peasants, he described the process as "successful", a key topic for Nazi leaders who had a plan to settle 15 million Germans in Eastern Europe.[37] Hermann Göring would later be in charge of the first ever concentration camp in the Holocaust.

Also in 1939, Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS and the architect behind the concentration camps, also made an official visit to Libya to witness the outcomes of the Italian methods. He is credited with conceiving the idea of the Final Solution.[37]

Historian Patrick Bernhard notes that the Nazi Commissariat organised special programmes to visit the Libyan colony. Visits to Tripoli occurred in 1937 and 1938 by high Nazi leaders such as Robert Ley, Rudolf Hess, the head of the SS Heinrich Himmler, and Marshal Hermann Göring. This led to the signing of an agreement to train 150 SS officers in the Italian Colonial School in Tivoli or Rome in 1937. Additionally, German state officials began an active program of fieldwork, examining the Italian colonial experience, contacting Italian officials and conducting fieldwork visits to Italy and the colony of Libya between 1938 and 1941, with numerous German books and press articles published during this time.[38]

Legacy

The primary legacy is the reframing of colonial history, seeing events that happened in Africa as a precursor to the abuses of the totalitarian regimes in Europe in particular Nazi Germany.

Hannah Arendt would be the first notable thinker to provide a link between colonial genocide in Africa and the Holocaust, describing the abuses during the Scramble for Africa as “Some fundamental aspects of this time appear so close to the totalitarian phenomena of the twentieth century that it may be justifiable to consider the whole period a preparatory stage for coming catastrophes".[39] Although Arendt's focus was primarily on Belgian Congo, it is this idea that has been further followed up in recent scholarship like in "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History" by Ali Abdullatif Ahmida and Patrick Bernhard in “Borrowing from Mussolini: Nazi Germany’s Colonial Aspirations in the Shadow of Italian Expansion”.[38]

Noam Chomsky supports this hypothesis and upon examing the recent scholarship has said “This shattering study, based on remarkable scholarship, not only brings to light the long-suppressed genocidal policies of the Italian Fascist state but also leads to serious rethinking of how colonial history is framed and of the origins of the horrendous Nazi crimes".[40]

Notes

  1. ^ Estimations of death tolls include:
  1. ^ Other estimates of the Cyrenaican population in 1911 put it higher, at 250,000.[24]
  2. ^ This highest figure of 1.5 million has been criticised as "simply wrong".[26]

Citations

  1. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 98.
  2. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 130.
  3. ^ a b Aruffo 2007, p. 48-65.
  4. ^ Wilcox 2021, p. 169.
  5. ^ a b Nagar & Mutasa 2018, p. 171.
  6. ^ Ertola 2017, pp. 340–353.
  7. ^ Vandewalle 2012, p. 33.
  8. ^ Cresti 2005, p. 75.
  9. ^ Evans-Pritchard 1954, p. 189.
  10. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 17.
  11. ^ a b c d De Grand 2004, pp. 127–147.
  12. ^ Cardoza 2006, p. 109.
  13. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 85.
  14. ^ a b c d Vandewalle 2012, p. 31.
  15. ^ Smith 1976, p. 40.
  16. ^ Duggan 2008, p. 497.
  17. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 61.
  18. ^ Baldinetti 2013, p. 48.
  19. ^ Shillington 2018, p. 365.
  20. ^ a b Finaldi 2019, pp. 22–42.
  21. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 3.
  22. ^ a b Ahmida 2023, p. 118.
  23. ^ a b Ahmida 2009, p. 15.
  24. ^ a b c d Wright 2022, p. 42, n. 10.
  25. ^ Ahmida 2006, pp. 175–190.
  26. ^ Wright 1995, p. 328-330.
  27. ^ Mann 2005, p. 309.
  28. ^ Segrè 1974, p. 161.
  29. ^ Evans-Pritchard 1954, p. 197.
  30. ^ Ahmida 2009, p. 1.
  31. ^ Smith 1976, p. 41.
  32. ^ Pappé 2005, p. 28.
  33. ^ Vandewalle 2012, p. 217, n. 11.
  34. ^ Pelt 1970, p. 500, n. 89.
  35. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 145.
  36. ^ Ahmida 2020, p. 9-10.
  37. ^ a b Ahmida 2020, p. 172.
  38. ^ a b Bernhard 2013, pp. 617–643.
  39. ^ Docker, John; Jaireth, Subhash (2003). "Introduction: Benjamin and Bakhtin-Vision and Visuality". Journal of Narrative Theory. 33 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1353/jnt.2011.0043. ISSN 1548-9248.
  40. ^ "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History eBook : Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif: Amazon.co.uk: Books". www.amazon.co.uk. Retrieved 2024-03-20.

References

  • Vandewalle, Dirk J. (2012). A history of modern Libya. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-09458-0.
  • Smith, Denis Mack (1976). Mussolini's Roman Empire. London ; New York: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-50266-6.
  • De Grand, Alexander (2004). "Mussolini's Follies: Fascism in Its Imperial and Racist Phase, 1935-1940". Contemporary European History. 13 (2). Cambridge University Press: 127–147. ISSN 0960-7773. JSTOR 20081201. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  • Duggan, Christopher (2008). The Force of Destiny. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-618-35367-5.
  • Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2020). Genocide in Libya. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-46889-7.
  • Baldinetti, Anna (2013). The Origins of the Libyan Nation. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-84562-5.
  • Shillington, Kevin (2018). History of Africa. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-137-50403-6.
  • Finaldi, Giuseppe (2019). "Fascism, Violence, and Italian Colonialism". The Journal of Holocaust Research. 33 (1): 22–42. doi:10.1080/23256249.2019.1548163. ISSN 2578-5648.
  • Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2023). "Eurocentrism, Silence and Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya, 1929–1934". In Kiernan, Ben; Lower, Wendy; Naimark, Norman; Straus, Scott (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108487078.
  • Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2009). The Making of Modern Libya. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-2891-8. OCLC 320186728.
  • Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2006). "When the Subaltern Speak: Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya 1929 to 1933". Italian Studies. 61 (2): 175–190. doi:10.1179/007516306X142924. ISSN 0075-1634.
  • Wright, John (2022). Libya. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-32248-3.
  • Wright, John (1995). "Inside Libya". The Journal of African History. 36 (2): 328–330. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  • Segrè, Claudio G. (1974). Fourth Shore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-74474-2.
  • Mann, Michael (2005). The Dark Side of Democracy. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83130-7.
  • Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan (1954). The Sanusi of Cyrenaica. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-01-377478-2.
  • Pappé, Ilan (2005). The Modern Middle East. London ; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-54371-2. OCLC 58647932.
  • Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini. New York: Addison-Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-321-09587-1.
  • Bernhard, Patrick (2013). "Borrowing from Mussolini: Nazi Germany's Colonial Aspirations in the Shadow of Italian Expansionism". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 41 (4): 617–643. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.836358. ISSN 0308-6534.
  • Aruffo, Alessandro (2007). Storia del colonialismo italiano (in Italian). ISBN 978-88-7981-315-0.
  • Wilcox, Vanda (2021). The Italian Empire and the Great War. Oxford ; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-882294-3. OCLC 1240305209.
  • Nagar, Dawn; Mutasa, Charles (2018). Africa and the World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-62589-8.
  • Ertola, Emanuele (2017-07-03). "' Terra promessa ': migration and settler colonialism in Libya, 1911–1970". Settler Colonial Studies. 7 (3): 340–353. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2016.1153251. ISSN 2201-473X.
  • Cresti, Federico (2005). "The Early Years of the Agency for the Colonization of Cyrenaica (1932-1935)". In Ben-Ghiat, Ruth; Fuller, Mia (eds.). Italian Colonialism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-23649-6.
  • Pelt, Adrian (1970). Libyan Independence and the United Nations. New Haven, USA: Yale University Press. ISBN 9948-13-491-5.
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