Physocarpus

by | Mar 16, 2018 | Physocarpus

How Can We Help?
You are here:
< Back
Not to be confused with Qadariyya, a madh'hab of Aqidah in Islam.
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics
Part of a series on
Aqidah
Silhouette of a mosque
Sunni
Six Articles of Iman
Five Pillars of Islam
Schools of theology
Shi'a
Basic Tenets of Faith
Theology of the Twelvers4, 5
Theology of the Ismailis6
Theology of the Zaydis
Muhakkima
Theology of the Ibadis
Other variants

Including:


Islam portal

Qadar (Arabic: قدر, transliterated qadar, meaning literally "power",[1] but translated variously as: "divine fore-ordainment", "predestination," "divine decree",[2] "decree" of Allah",[3] "preordainment"[4]) is the concept of divine destiny in Islam.[5] As God is all-knowing and all-powerful, everything that has happened and will happen in the universe is already known. At the same time, human beings are responsible for their actions, and will be rewarded or punished accordingly on Judgement Day.[6][7]

Predestination/Divine Destiny is one of Sunni Islam's six articles of faith, (along with belief in the Oneness of Allah, the Revealed Books, the Prophets of Islam, the Day of Resurrection and Angels). In Sunni discourse, those who assert free-will are called Qadariyya, while those who reject free-will are called Jabriyya.[8]

Some early Islamic schools (Qadariyah and Muʿtazila) did not accept the doctrine of predestination;[9] Muʿtazila argued that it was "unthinkable" that God "would punish man for what He himself had commanded".[10] Predestination is not included in the Five Articles of Faith of Shi'i Islam. At least a few sources describe Shi'i Muslims as denying predestination,[11][12][13][14] and at least one Shi'i scholar (Naser Makarem Shirazi) argues "belief in predestination is a denial of justice".[15]

Definition

In Islam, "predestination" is the usual English language rendering of a belief that Muslims call al-qaḍāʾ wa l-qadar ([ælqɑˈdˤɑːʔ wælˈqɑdɑr] القضاء والقدر). As per the Sunni understanding, the phrase means "the divine decree and the predestination"; al-qadr more closely means "(divine) power", deriving from the root ق د ر (q-d-r), which denotes concepts related to measuring out, aiming, calculating, preparing, being able, and having power.[16] Another source states, that according to scholars:

  • "the divine decree (al-qada’) consists of the entire and complete judgment forever",
  • "the divine measurement (al-qadar) consists of the particulars of the judgment and its details".[17]

(The name of the 97th surah of the Qur'an is known as Surat al-Qadr).

  • Taqdeer Arabic: تقدیر also refers to predestination in Islam, the "absolute decree of the Divine", and comes from the same Q-D-R three consonant root, but is of a different "grammatical orders and thus not considered interchangeable" with Qadr.[18] In Arabic it literally means ‘making a thing according to a measure’, or ‘occurrence of events according to pre-defined measures, standards or criteria’. It is found in verses Q.41:12, Q.36:38, Q.6:96.[19]

Predestination and free will

In orthodox Islam, God's control over what happens in his creation is absolute. "Allah has decreed all things from eternity". He knows that they will happen, when they will happen, how they will happen, and "He has written that and willed it".[20] This includes "the pettiest of human or other, affairs", not withstanding "the grandeur of God's cosmic role".[21]

This poses the question, (raised by the early Islamic rationalist Muʿtazila school of thought),[10] if everything that has happened and will happen, including all acts of good and evil, has already been determined by God, doesn't that mean that everything a human being does during their life is only following God's decree? How can human beings be responsible for this, and even punished with eternal torment in hell for it?[10] According to Justin Parrott of the Islamic Yaqeen Institute, "it has been an important issue throughout history",[6] addressed by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle over 2000 years ago.[22] Orientalist Alfred Guillaume points out the dilemma "has exercised the minds" of theologians of all religions "which claim to present" a god that is both almighty and moral.[23]

As a result, the scholars emphasized that providence is a secret of Allah and that "going too deeply into it philosophically" will lead to "misguidance".[6] The creed of Al-Tahawi warns "that providence" (the seeming conflict of divine decree with human free will) is such a secret that even God's most obedient and holy creatures were not let in on the mystery.[6] Incompatibility between predestination and free will is not an issue in many popular Islamic sources.

  • "God knows everything and has already decided everything that will happen. ... The belief in free will is essential in Islam. This is because, for Muslims, life is a test from Allah. Therefore, all human beings must make their own decisions, and they will be judged on those decisions by Allah." (BBC);
  • "Belief in Qadr or predestination as one of the six article of faith,[20][24]
  • "God has foreknowledge of everything ... Even if the fate of man's soul is predetermined, he has no way of knowing what that fate is, and therefore it behooves him to strive for Allah's favor." (Thomas W. Lippman).[25]

The 10th century Ash'ari school of theology, (which is one of the main Sunni schools of Islamic theology), reconciles punishment in hell with the doctrine of total divine power over everything, with their own doctrine of kasb (acquisition). According to it, while any and all acts, including human acts of evil, are created by God, the human being who performs the act is responsible for it, because they have "acquired" the act.[26][27] Humans only have the power to decide between the given possibilities God has created.[28] Maria De Cillis explains Al-Baqillani has specify the difference between a non free act and an acquired act, that "To acquire" in this context means the person perform his act freely by virtue of physical forces generated by the joined acts.[29] Such act was related with the concept which led to divide reward or punishment. al-Bāqillānī recognised that a person had the capacity to act in such a way as to make their actions coincide with what God wanted or rejected, thereby conferring moral connotations upon actions.[30][nb 1]

Justin Parrott explains that "from a purely rational standpoint", it may seem impossible for God to have absolute knowledge and power over all action in the universe, and for humans to be responsible for their actions. Parrott quotes sahih hadith that our "life span, deeds, and ultimate fate" (whether we go to heaven or hell) are determined ("written by the angels") before we are born; yet after we are born we have the opportunity "to secure a good fate" by appealing "to Allah through worship, prayer, and good deeds".[6]

Criticism

Critics have accused Muhammad of making "no effort to grapple with the difficulty his self-contradictory revelations on this subject caused to subsequent thinker."[23]

Skeptics have dismissed Qadar as unjust and non-sensical—inherently contradictory. Critic of Islam Ibn Warraq complains that the "system of predestination" turns men into "automata", undermining "the notion of moral responsibility" and the justification for the harsh punishment of hellfire.[34] According to Maria De Cillis, the political consequences of the free will against determinism debate has extended to beyond academic and ulama field; as it breached into the realm of politics as this matter has relationship with the social context; (for example, when tyrannical and corrupt authorities encourage fatalism to point out that these maladies are "divinely willed and preordained").[30] According to Justin Parrott, The though that everything has already decreed by the Creator has given problems for theologians and philosophers, even for the single matter of the aspect about the relationship between predestination and free will.[6] Cedomir Nestorovic asserts that the limited acceptance of free-will might have influence on the Islamic market place. The belief in free-will might motivate an individual to change the order of things. If there is a lack of belief in free-will, it is unlikely for a company to make changes.[35]

History

Based on what has been preserved of the poetry of pre-Islamic Arabs, it is thought that they believed that the date of the person's death (ajal), was predetermined "no matter what he or she did". A person's "provision" or "sustenance" (rizq), essentially food, was also pre-determined.[33]

The concept of ajal is also found in the Quran in several verses, especially one revealed in reply to criticism of Muḥammad's military strategy (go out to Mount Uhud to fight when Muslims were attacked in Medina by the Meccans) that some Muslims complained led to unnecessary loss of life:

  • "If you had been in your houses, those for whom killing was written down would have sallied out to the places of their falling" (Q.3:154).[33]

(The verse expresses a different point of view—that acts are not predetermined, but their outcome is—than the later theological position that God knows/determines everything that happens.)[33] The Qurʾān also speaks specifically of the supply of rizq, or provision being in God control:

  • "He lavishes rizq on whom He wills, or stints it" (Q.30:37)[33]

The question of how to reconcile God's absolute power with human responsibility for their actions, led to "one of the earliest sectarian schisms" in Islam, between the Qadarites (aka Qadariyah), who believed in total free will of humans (and who appeared in Damascus around the end of the seventh century CE);[36] and the Jabarites, who believed in "absolute" divine "determinism and fatalism".[6] One statement of the Qadarite school doctrine (Kitābu-l Milal wal Niḥal by Al Mahdi lidin Allah Ahmad b. Yaḥyā b. Al Murtaḍā (a.h. 764–840)) arguing against determinism stated:

  • God knows that men will commit crimes, but his (fore) knowledge does not impel them so to do.
  • God wills nothing but that which is good (p. 12) 3
  • Everything happens by the decree and predestination of God except evil works (ألمعاصى "disobediences")[37]

Ma'bad al-Juhani (d.699 CE), was crucified by the orders of the Caliph Abd al-Malik in Damascus. He was said to be the first man to discuss the Qadr (Divine Decree).[38]

The Umayyad, during their reign, took the theological position that God had bestowed the caliphate on them, just as the Qurʾān described the bestowing of a caliphate on Adam (Q.2:30).[33] Among their opponents were Qādarī who asserted "human free will in some form", such as that the good acts of any person come from God, but their bad acts (including those of God's caliph) come from themselves.[33] After the dispute between the Qadarites and Jabarites, majority of Muslims community at that time followed the middle path dictated by the Quran and Sunnah, "between the two extremes".[6]

Following the overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty by the Abbasid in 750 CE, the Qādarī movement "either faded out or was absorbed into the rationalist Muʿtazila movement".[33] The next two schools that felt the need to reconcile the idea of an omnipotent God (creating everything including human actions) with a just God (who does not hold human beings responsible for acts God, not they, willed), were the Muʿtazila and the Ashʿaris.[30]

The Mu‘tazili school argued that since justice (‘adl) is "the true essence" of divinity, "God can only do and only wishes what is salutary for human beings". (Based on verses Q.3:104, Q.22:10, Q.4:81.)[33] He not only orders people to do that which is good and forbids them to do that which is reprehensible, he abstains from doing evil Himself. The evil in the world comes instead from Man's/human beings' free will. Man (the human race), therefore, is "the genuine “creator” (khāliq) of his actions".[30]

Recently in modern era, the Hanafi school fatwa site IslamQA stated that predestination is one of those issues which God urges Muslims to not delve too much; including the fate of person's if he or she would enter heaven or [[hell.[39] Islamic modernism such as Muḥammad ʿAbduh, and Fazlur Rahman Malik, viewed that God knew the mortals acts.[33]

Sunni view

Sunnis enumerate Qadar as one aspect of their creed (Arabic: aqidah). To tackle the issue about the polemical "Will of God" vs "Will of creatures"; classified into multiple facets. Ibn Abi al-Izz then postulated that according to such tiered Taqdir; the concept of fate or destiny does not contradict the existence of free will, since they are multifaceted without overlapping priority.[40]

Regarding this matter Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, classified Taqdeer (fate; singular of Qadar) are classified into several stages where Qadar is determined and prescribed/sent to creation, followed by Ibn Taymiyya further observed such classification into 5 type:

Taqdir al-‘Aam (general fate)[41]/ Taqdir Azali (divine fate): In general, Sunni muslims believe the divine destiny is when God wrote down in the Preserved Tablet (al-Lawhu 'l-Mahfuz) all that has happened and will happen, which will come to pass as written. According to Al-Tahawi, divine destiny the origin of destiny is the secret of God. Not even archangels or Prophets and messengers in Islam had knowledge about Qadr.[42][43] Ibn Taymiyyah based this kind of Taqdir from Al-Hajj 22:10 and Sahih Muslim chapter VIII Hadith number 51. This Taqdir encompassed another Taqdirs[41]

  1. Taqdir al-Bashari: The next stage of Taqdir after the creation of Adam. God took out all of the progeny of Adam (i.e. all of the humans from the beginning of time until the end of time), and asked them "Am I not your Lord?" and all of the humans responded "We testify that You are our Lord!" Then Allah decreed to them who shall go to paradise and who shall go to hell. This Taqdir encompassed by Taqdir al-Azali.[41]
  2. Taqdir al-'Umri. This occurs when people are in the womb of their mothers, specifically 120 days after conception. Allah sends an angel to put a soul into the body, and the angel writes down the decree that Allah has made; their life-spans, their actions, their sustenances (how much they will earn throughout their lifetime) and whether they will be dwellers of paradise or a dweller of hell.[44] This Taqdir encompassed by Taqdir al-Azali and Taqdir al-Bashari.[41]
  3. Taqdir Sanawi: This is during the Night of Qadr (Night of Decree) where Allah sends down his decrees from heaven to earth, in it he destines the actions (deeds, sustenance, births, deaths, etc.) of creation for the next year. The word Qadar should not be confused with Qadr; Qadar is destiny, Qadr is that which has been destined, i.e. decree, thus the translation – Night of Decree. This Taqdir encompassed by Taqdir al-Azali, Taqdir al-Bashari, and Taqdir Taqdir al-'Umri.[41]
  4. Taqdir Yawmi: Allah decrees the daily actions of his creation.This Taqdir encompassed by Taqdir al-Azali, Taqdir al-Bashari, Taqdir Taqdir al-'Umri, and Taqdir Sanawi. This is the lowest tier of the Taqdir, where technically the "human's free will" position within predestination according to Sunni.[41]

According to Maturidi belief, all active possibilities are created by God and humans act in accordance with their free intention to choose which action they follow. In this way, the intention precedes the created action and capacity by which actions are acquired (kasb in Arabic).[45]

Four fundamentals of Qadar

According to two conservative sources (islamqa.info and Allah Knowing) belief in al-Qadar is based on four things,[24] components[46] aspects:[47]

  1. – العلم Al-ʿIlm – Knowledge: i.e., that God is the most knowing about everything
  2. – كتابة Kitabah – Writing: i.e., that God has wrote everything that exists including the destiny of all creatures in al-Lawhu 'l-Mahfuz prior to creation. Also called Allah's "pre-recording".[47]
  3. – مشيئة Mashii'ah – Will: i.e., that anything God wills, it would happens and what He does not will not happen.
  4. – الخلق Al-Khalq – Creation and formation: i.e., that God is the Creator of all things, including the actions of His creations.[24][46]

Shi'a view

Shi'i Twelvers, along with other Shia sects, such as the Zaydis, reject predestination.[11][12][13][14] This belief is further emphasized by the Shia concept of Bada', which states that God has not set a definite course for human history. Instead, God may alter the course of human history as God sees fit.

However, according to Encyclopedia.com (drawing from W. Montgomery Watt and Asma Afsaruddin), contemporary Imāmīs, aka Twelver Shi'a, "in general, subscribe to the doctrine of divine determination with a nod in the direction of free will; Ismāʿīlī views are not dissimilar. The Zaydī Shīʿī are closer to the Muʿtazilah in their views".[33]

Some positions taken by leading Shi'i scholars (quotes from Maria De Cillis) include:

  • "human actions are created by God and can "simultaneously" be classified as free actions" and divinely "obligatory actions".[30]
    • Free unless someone had forced the person to do them, and obligatory because they "proceeded from a cause produced by God". Hisham ibn al-Hakam, a companion of Ja‘far al-Sādiq and also a scholar.[30]
    • This position was adopted by the Qom's theological school and the Shi'i hadith scholar al-Kulaynī (d. 941),[30]
  • God can not "be deemed either the creator of actions or the One wishing wicked human actions". Sheikh al-Mufīd (d. 1022), member of Baghdad's Imamite school.[30]

The idea of "a tablet" with the future written on it is not unique to Sunni Islam as one Twelver Shi'i scholar (Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid d.1022), claiming that "the Tablet is the Book of Almighty Allah in which He has written all that will be till the Day of Resurrection".[48]

To show that there is no contradiction between being predestined, and free will, Shiites state that matters relating to human destiny are of two kinds: definite and indefinite. To explain the definitive one, Shiites argue that God has definite power over the whole of existence, however, so whenever He wills, He can replace a given destiny with another one; and that is what is called indefinite destiny. Some of these changes of destiny, thus, are brought about by man himself, who can through his free will, his decisions, and his way of life lay the groundwork for a change in his destiny as has been pointed out in the verse:

  • Truly, God will not change the condition of a people as long as they do not change Their state themselves. (Q.13:11)[49]

Both types of destinies, however, are contained within God's foreknowledge, Shiites argue, so that there could be no sort of change (badaʾ lit. "mutability") concerning His knowledge. So the first type of destiny does not mean a limitation of God's power; since God, in contrast to the belief of Jews who said the hand of God is tied’ asserts: Nay, His hands are spread out wide ....[50] So God has the power to change everything he wills and God's creativity is continuous. Accordingly, as Sobhani puts it, "all groups in Islam regard "bada" as a tenet of the faith, even if not all actually use the term."[51]

Iranian scholar Naser Makarem Shirazi asserts that "belief in predestination is a denial of justice", and that there is free will in Islam,[15] but at the same time (according to him) God has foreknowledge of everything in the future. He tackles the paradox of God knowing man will commit a certain sin, and man's free will to commit it by postulating the existence of a machine so advanced that it can predict the occurrence of an event some hours in advance.[15] Yet one would not say the machine compelled that event to occur; likewise, God's perfect knowledge doesn't compel man to commit sins.[15]

Ismaili

Ismaili thinkers such as Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi, Muhammad Ibn Ahmad al-Nasafī, Ishāq Ibn Ahmad al-Sijistānī, Al-Qadi al-Nu'man (d. 974) and Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani, contributes the development of the understanding about qadā’ and qadar in Ismaili doctrine. They wrote that humans were not able to fully grasp the Qur’anic truths in their exoteric and esoteric essence. Human knowledge, therefore required guidance from the authoritative imams of Ismaili faith.[30]

See also

Appendix

Notes

  1. ^ Malcolm Clark, (who taught in the Department of Religion at Butler University for 30 years),[31] notes that "al-Ash'ari's 'solution' will seem more like a semantic trick to than a genuine solution" to non-Muslim Westerners today. "But before you criticize" this attempt to reconcile free will with divine determinism, "remember that no solution to this perennial problem" has been "able to resolve the problem to the satisfaction of non-believers".[32] Encyclopedia.com also shares criticism of the reasoning of the Ashʿarīyah: "Other scholars, even Sunnī theologians like the Māturīdīyah, found the term kasb obscure and unsatisfactory and called the Ashʿarīyah "determinists" (mujbirah )."[33]

Primary sources

Quran;

  • "He knows what is in land and sea; not a leaf falls, but He known it.".6:59[21]
  • "By no means can anything befall us [his creatures] but what God has destined for us" (Q.9:51)
  • "He has ordained for you ˹believers˺ the Way which He decreed for Noah, and what We have revealed to you ˹O Prophet˺ and what We decreed for Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, ˹commanding:˺ 'Uphold the faith, and make no divisions in it.' What you call the polytheists to is unbearable for them. Allah chooses for Himself whoever He wills, and guides to Himself whoever turns ˹to Him˺."(Q.42:13)

... and in particular God's control over each humans destiny in the afterlife:

  • "As for those who persist in disbelief, it is the same whether you warn them or not—they will never believe. Allah has sealed their hearts and their hearing, and their sight is covered. They will suffer a tremendous punishment." (Q.2:6-7)[52]
  • "If God had willed, He would have made you one community; but He leads astray whom He will, and guides whom He will; and will surely be questioned about the things you wrought." (Q.16:93)[52]
  • "Nor would thy Lord be the One to destroy communities for a single wrong-doing, if its members were likely to mend. If thy Lord had so willed, He could have made mankind one people: but they will not cease to dispute. Except those on whom thy Lord hath bestowed His Mercy: and for this did He create them: and the Word of thy Lord shall be fulfilled: 'I will fill Hell with jinns and men all together."(Q.11:119)
  • "God misleads whom He will and whom He will He guides" (Q.14:4)
  • "The Lord has created and balanced all things and has fixed their destinies and guided them." (Q.87:2)

"The Book of Decrees" (al-lawh al-mahfooz), is mentioned at least twice in the Quran.

  • "Verily, We have created all things with Qadar (Divine Preordainments) of all things before their creation as written in the Book of Decrees." (Q.54:49)
  • "No calamity befalls on the earth or in yourselves but is inscribed in the Book of Decrees before We bring it into existence. Verily, that is easy for Allah." (Q.57:22)
  • "Do not say of anything, I am doing that tomorrow, without [adding], If God wills" (Q.18:23)

free will:[53]

  • "As for Thamûd, We showed them guidance, but they preferred blindness over guidance. So the blast of a disgracing punishment overtook them for what they used to commit." (Q.41:17)
  • "And say, ˹O Prophet,˺ '˹This is˺ the truth from your Lord. Whoever wills let them believe, and whoever wills let them disbelieve." (Q.18:28)
  • "For each one there are successive angels before and behind, protecting them by Allah’s command. Indeed, Allah would never change a people’s state ˹of favour˺ until they change their own state ˹of faith˺. And if it is Allah’s Will to torment a people, it can never be averted, nor can they find a protector other than Him." (Q.13:11)
  • "Whatever good befalls you is from Allah and whatever evil befalls you is from yourself. We have sent you ˹O Prophet˺ as a messenger to ˹all˺ people. And Allah is sufficient as a Witness." (Q.4:79)

Hadith;

  • It was narrated from ’Umar that Jibreel عليه السلام said to the Prophet: What is faith (Iman)? He said: "To believe in Allah, His Angels, His Books, His Messengers, the Last Day and the divine decree, both good and bad." Jibreel said to him: You have spoken the truth. He said: We were amazed that he asked him and then confirmed his answers as being correct. The Prophet said: "That was Jībreel, who came to teach you your religion."[54]
  • A hadith quotes Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab as narrating the hadith above along with the saying that: "If one of them were to spend gold the like of Uhud (mountain) in charity, it would not be accepted by Allah from him until he believes in Al-Qadar";[55][56]
  • A hadith quotes from 'Ali recorded, Muhammad once said 'There is none of you who does not have his seat written either in the Fire or in the Garden.' They said, 'Messenger of Allah, then should we not rely on what is written for us and abandon action?' 'Act.' Muhammad replied. 'Everything is easy if you were created for it.' He added, 'As for someone who is one of the people of happiness, it is easy for him to perform the actions of happiness. As for someone who is one of the people of wretchedness, it is easy for him to perform the actions of wretchedness.' Then he recited,|[Quran 92:5-7] al-Lail.[57]

Citations

  1. ^ J. M. Cowan (ed.) (1976). The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. Wiesbaden, Germany: Spoken Language Services. ISBN 0-87950-001-8
  2. ^ "Six Major Beliefs In Islam". University of Delaware. The Basics to Islam. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  3. ^ Muhsin Khan, Muhammad. The Noble Qur'an. Verily! We have sent it (this Quran) down in the night of Al-Qadr (Decree)
  4. ^ "The Six Articles of Faith". Dar al-Ifta Al-Missriyya. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  5. ^ "Qadar". missionislam.com. Retrieved 2016-03-27.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Parrott, Justin (31 July 2017). "Reconciling the Divine Decree and Free Will in Islam". Yaqeen Institute. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  7. ^ "If things are decreed, then how can a person be called to account for them? 96978". Islam Question and Answer. 29 April 2007. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  8. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr Islamic Spirituality: Foundations Routledge, 05.11.2013 1987 isbn 978-1-134-53895-9 p. 156
  9. ^ Guillaume, Islam, 1978: p.131-2
  10. ^ a b c Guillaume, Islam, 1978: p.132
  11. ^ a b Need of Religion, by Sayyid Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi, p. 14.
  12. ^ a b Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures, by Marshall Cavendish Corporation, p. 137.
  13. ^ a b Religions of Man, by Charles Douglas Greer, p. 239.
  14. ^ a b Muslims, by S. H. M. Rizvi, Shibani Roy, B. B. Dutta, p. 20.
  15. ^ a b c d Shirazi, Naser Makarem (12 May 2015). "The Issue of Predestination and Free Will". The Justice of God. Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  16. ^ "A e D". Archived from the original on December 8, 2011. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
  17. ^ Ibn Ḥajar al-’Asqalānī, Aḥmad ibn ’Alī. Fatḥ al-Bārī bi-Sharḥ al-Bukhārī. (Bayrūt: Dār al-Maʻrifah, 1959), 11:477. Quoted in De Cillis, Maria (22 April 2022). "ISLAM. Muslims and Free Will". Oasis. 6. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  18. ^ "Taqdir". Definitions. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  19. ^ Hussain, Tanveer (5 April 2014). "PREDESTINATION AND TAQDEER". THE QURANIC TEACHINGS. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  20. ^ a b al-Qada’ wa’l-Qadar by Dr ‘Abd al-Rahmaan al-Mahmoud, p. 39; quoted in "Is man's fate pre-destined or does he have freedom of will? 20806". Islam Question and Answer. 10 June 2003. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  21. ^ a b Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.19
  22. ^ Dudley, John. Aristotle's Concept of Chance: Accidents, Cause, Necessity, and Determinism. (Albany: SUNY Press, 2012), 2.
  23. ^ a b Guillaume, Alfred (January 1924). "Some Remarks on Free Will and Predestination in Islam, Together with a Translation of the Kitabu-l Qadar from the Sahih of al-Bukhari". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1 (1): 43–63. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00094806. JSTOR 25220438. S2CID 170696115. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  24. ^ a b c "Is man's fate pre-destined or does he have freedom of will? 20806". Islam Question and Answer. 10 June 2003. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  25. ^ Lippman, Thomas W. , Understanding Islam, An Introduction to the Moslem World, A Mentor Book, New American Library, 1982, p.79, 80
  26. ^ Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 ISBN 978-0-759-10190-6 page 62-3
  27. ^ Gibb, H.A.R. (1953) [1949]. Mohammedanism. Oxford University Press. pp. 116–117.
  28. ^ Hughes 2013, pp. 193–194.
  29. ^ Daniel Gimaret, Théories de l’acte Humain en théologie musulmane (Vrin, Paris, 1980), pp. 102-103.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i De Cillis, Maria (22 April 2022). "ISLAM. Muslims and Free Will". Oasis. 6. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  31. ^ "Malcolm Clark Books". World of Books. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  32. ^ Clark, Malcolm (2019). "4.What Muslims Believe. Stating the Five Essential Beliefs of Islam". Islam for Dummies. John Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-64304-3.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Free Will And Predestination: Islamic Concepts". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  34. ^ Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.125-126
  35. ^ Nestorović, Č. "Islamic Marketing: Understanding the Socio-Economic." Cultural, and Politico-Legal Environment (2016, Springer) at 243 (2016).
  36. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (January 1924). "Some Remarks on Free Will and Predestination in Islam, Together with a Translation of the Kitabu-l Qadar from the Sahih of al-Bukhari". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1 (1): 45. JSTOR 25220438. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  37. ^ Guillaume, Alfred (January 1924). "Some Remarks on Free Will and Predestination in Islam, Together with a Translation of the Kitabu-l Qadar from the Sahih of al-Bukhari". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1 (1): 46. JSTOR 25220438. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  38. ^ Sahih Muslim 1.'The Book of Faith (Kitab Al-Iman)' of Sahih Muslim.
  39. ^ "Is that a Muslim can believe in predestination, if so why judge Muslims? Answered according to Hanafi Fiqh by Tafseer Raheemi". Islamqa. 13 October 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  40. ^ Yazid bin Abdul Qadir Jawas. "Iman Kepada Qadar(Takdir) Baik Dan Buruk" [Belief in the good or bad fate]. Almanhaj (in Indonesian). Retrieved 11 August 2024. Chapter of= Syarah Aqidah Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'ah (in Indonesian). Pustaka Imam As-Syafi'i. 2006. ISBN 978-979-3536-64-4. OCLC 949744119.; concise references from:
  41. ^ a b c d e f Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al-Hamd. "Macam-Macam Takdir" [Various kinds of Taqdir] (in Indonesian). Translated by Ahmad Syaikhu. Retrieved 11 August 2024. chapter fromAl-Iman bil qadla wa al-qadr inda ahlissunnah wal mu'tazilah iman kpd qadha dan qadar menurut pendapat ahli sunnah mutazilah (in Indonesian). Jakarta, Id: Fakultas Dirasah Islamiyah UIN Syarif Hidayatullah. 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2024. Concise references from:
    • Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz; Sharh Aqidah al-Wasitiyah; p.78-80
    • Hafiz ibn Ahmad 'Ali al-Hakami; A’laamus Sunnah al-Mansyuurah; p.129-133
    • Za'dul Masiir; Ibn al-Jawzi; p.VII/338
    • Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿaẓīm; Ibn Kathir; p.IV/275
    • Fath al-Bari; Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani; p.V/136
  42. ^ Abdul-Aziz Ibn Baz. "تعليق على العقيدة الطحاوية" [Commentary on the Tahawi Creed]. binbaz.org.sa (in Arabic). Sheikh Abdul Aziz bin Baz Charitable Foundation. Retrieved 11 August 2024. Published in the Journal of Islamic Research, Issue 15, pp. 257-267, (Collection of Fatwas and Various Articles by Sheikh Ibn Baz 2/74);
  43. ^ Ibn Abi al-Izz (1997). "1". شرح العقيدة الطحاوية [Explanation of the Creed of Al-Tahawi] (in Arabic). مؤسسة الرسالة. p. 321. Retrieved 11 August 2024.
  44. ^ "Hadith 4, 40 Hadith an-Nawawi - Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
  45. ^ al-Maturidi al-Samarqandi, Abu Mansur Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmoud (1970). Kitab at-Tawhid (English Introduction by Fathallah Kholeif) Beirut: Dar El-Machreq. p. xxxiv-xxxvi.
  46. ^ a b "Belief In Al-Qadar (Divine Decree). The four components of Qadar". Allah Knowing. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
  47. ^ a b "The Four Aspects of Belief in Al-Qadr (Divine Decree)". Islamweb.net. 24 September 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
  48. ^ Al-Mufid (10 June 2014). "18. The belief concerning the tablet and the pen (Al-Lawh Wa 'L-Qalam)". The Emendation of a Shi'ite Creed. al-Islam.org. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  49. ^ Q13:11
  50. ^ Q5:64
  51. ^ Sobhani, Ja'far. Doctrines of Shi'i Islam. Translated and Edited by Reza Shah-Kazemi. London - New York: I.B.Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies. pp. 159–163.
  52. ^ a b Cook, Michael, The Koran, A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000, p.16
  53. ^ Wensinck, A.J., The Muslim Creed, Cambridge, 1932, pp.51-52
  54. ^ "Musnad Ahmad » Musnad 'Umar b. al-Khattab (ra) - مُسْنَدِ عُمَرَ بْنِ الْخَطَّابِ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ » Hadith 191". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  55. ^ tirmidhi. "Jami' at-Tirmidhi » The Book on Faith - كتاب الإيمان عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم » Hadith 2610". sunnah.com. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
  56. ^ 431 hadith found in 'The Book of Faith (Kitab Al-Iman)' of Sahih Muslim. [1]
  57. ^ "Al-Adab Al-Mufrad » Consequences - كتاب عاقبة الأمور » Hadith 903". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 11 August 2024. Grade: Sahih (Al-Albani); Reference : Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 903 In-book reference : Book 38, Hadith 16 English translation : Book 38, Hadith 903

Secondary sources

Categories
Table of Contents