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Koreans[h] are an indigenous East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula and southern Manchuria.[7][8][9][10] The majority live in the two nation states of North Korea and South Korea. Koreans are a recognized ethnic minority in other Asian countries, including China, Japan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Russia. Outside of Asia, the Korean ethnic diaspora reside in France, United States, Canada, and Australia.

Etymology

See also: Names of Korea

South Koreans refer to themselves as Hanguk-in[i] or Hanguk-saram,[j] which mean "people of Samhan."

North Koreans refer to themselves as Joseon-in[k] or Joseon-saram,[l] which mean "people of Joseon". The term is derived from Joseon, the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, named after the ancient state Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom according to legend.

Koreans in China refer to themselves as Chaoxianzu[m] in Chinese or Joseonjok, Joseonsaram[n] in Korean, which are cognates, meaning "Joseon ethnic group".[11][12]

Koreans in Japan refer to themselves as Zainchi Chousenjin or Zainchi, in Japanese or Jaeil Joseonin, Joseonsaram, Joseonin[o] in Korean.

In Russia and Central Asia, they refer to themselves as Koryo-saram,[p] alluding to Goryeo, a Korean dynasty spanning from 918 to 1392.

Origins

Based on linguistic, archaeologic and genetic evidence, the early Koreans are migrants from Manchuria during the Bronze Age.[13] [14] Many linguists place the homeland of Koreanic-speakers near the Liao River region in Northeastern China. Later, these speakers migrated from Manchuria to Korea and expanded south, replacing and assimilating the native Japonic-speakers living in the Peninsula which likely caused the Yayoi migration into the Japanese islands.[15][16]

The Koreanic-speakers arrived to the south of the Korean Peninsula in 300 BC and coexisted with the Mumun descendants.[17] Research suggests proto-Korean is a variant of the Koreanic languages spoken in southern Manchuria and northern Korean peninsula by the time of Three Kingdoms. Through Goguryeo migrants, this language eventually reached down to the south.[18] The arrival of early Koreans can be associated with the Liaoning Bronze dagger culture, which expanded from the West Liao River region.[19] Archaeological evidence points to a possible connection between the pottery-making of the Late Neolithic to Bronze Age cultures between the West Liao River basin and the Korean peninsula.[20] Miyamoto (2021) similarly argues that Proto-Koreanic arrived with this culture from the Liaodong Peninsula, gradually replacing the Japonic-speakers of the Mumun-Yayoi culture.[21]

However, many Korean scholars reject the notion that the Koreanic-speakers are not originally native to the Peninsula, and argue that there are no conclusive evidence of such linguistic migration. They also argue there is no material change in the Peninsula to support later migrations.[19]

Genetics

Main article: Genetic history of East Asians
Geographic location and dates of ancient individuals in Northeast Asia. The Bronze Age West Liao River farmers (WLR_BA) display long-term genetic continuity with modern Koreans.
Proto-Macro-Koreanic arrived after Proto-Japonic from Liaodong and the Changbaishan region with the introduction of bronze daggers around 300 BC.[22]

Modern Koreans are derived primarily from Bronze Age farmers from the West Liao River.[23] These farmers are modelled to be the combination of two Ancient Northern East Asian lineages, namely Neolithic Yellow River farmers and Ancient Northeast Asians (Amur hunter-gatherers). The spread of Proto-Koreanic can be linked to the expansion of Bronze Age West Liao River farmers. It is suggested that this ancestry was introduced into the Japanese gene pool by early Koreanic-speakers, during the Kofun period.[24] WLR_BA ancestry is also associated with the Upper Xiajiadian culture, which is used as source proxy for Bronze Age Koreans and modern Koreans.[25][26]

Wang (2022) states that people of the Three Kingdoms Period had Jōmon ancestry, which ranged from 10% to 95%[27], and significantly contributed to the genetic makeup of modern Koreans. But subsequent arrivals of northern Han Chinese "diluted" this Jōmon ancestry.[28]

The three highest frequencies of the Y-DNA haplogroups: O2-M122 (40%), O1b2-M176 (30%), and C2-M217 (15%).[29] The ratio of O2-M122 to O1b2-M176 is greatest in Seoul-Gyeonggi (1.8065), with the ratio declining in a counterclockwise direction around South Korea (Chungcheong 1.6364, Jeolla 1.3929, Jeju Island 1.3571, Gyeongsang 1.2400, Gangwon 0.9600).[30][31][32][33][34]

Haplogroup C2-M217 (15%) is found in most provinces, but is less common (7%) from Jeju Island and greater (26%) of a small sample (n=19) of males from North Korea.[35][36][37]

Koreans are more similar to one another in regard to their autosomes than to other ethnic groups. Studies of polymorphisms in the human Y-chromosome have produced evidence that suggests Koreans have a long history as a unique, endogamous ethnic group, with successive prehistoric waves of different groups moving to the peninsula.[38] The mitochondrial DNA markers (mtDNA haplogroups and HVR-I sequences) of Korean populations showed close relationships with Manchu, Yamato Japanese, Mongols and northern Han Chinese but not with Southeast Asians. Y-chromosomal distances showed a close relationship to most East Asian population groups, including Southeast Asian ones.[39]

Ancient genome comparisons reveal that the genetic makeup can be best described as an admixture of the Neolithic Devil's Gate genome in the Amur region in the Russian Far-East adjacent to North Korea and the rice-farmers of the Yangtze river valley.[40] The results in Neolithic Devil's Gate shows that ancient populations of the area were already admixed from both Northeast Asian and Southeast Asian sources. These groups correlate closely to modern Koreanic and Japonic, who form a cluster in regional comparisons, along with certain Tungusic groups, such as Ulchis, Nanais, and Oroqens.[41]

Koreans show close genetic relationship with the Yamato Japanese, Southern Tungusic groups and some northern Han Chinese subgroups from Hebei and Manchuria.[7][8][10][42][43][9] According to a genetic distance measurements from a large scale genetic study from 2021, Koreans are genetically closest to Yamato Japanese, followed by a slightly larger margin by Northern Han Chinese on FST genetic distance measurements.[44]

Genealogy

The vast majority of Koreans do not know their genealogical history before the twentieth century. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many families devised fake stories that aimed to connect the same surname and ancestral seat to a single, common ancestor. This became widespread in the nineteenth century, but genealogies published in the seventeenth century admit that they did not know how to relate the different lines of the same surname or ancestral seats.[45] Only a small percentage had surnames and ancestral seats to begin with, and that the rest of the population only adopted them in the last two to three hundred years.[46]

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Korea, Culture of North Korea, and Culture of South Korea

North Korea and South Korea share a common heritage, but the political division since 1945 has resulted in some divergence of their modern cultures.[citation needed]

Language

Main articles: Korean language and Hangul

The language of the Korean people is the Korean language, which uses Hangul as its main writing system. Daily usage of Hanja has been phased out in Korean peninsula other than usage by selected South Korean media companies (mostly conservative) when referring to key politicians (e.g. current and former Presidents, leaders of major political parties) or handful of countries (e.g. China, Japan, Canada, United States, United Kingdom) as an abbreviation. Otherwise, Hanja is exclusively used for academic, historical and religious purposes. Roman alphabet is the de facto secondary writing system in South Korea especially for loan words and is widely used in day-to-day and official communication. There are more than 78 million speakers of the Korean language worldwide.[47] The difference in speech between North and South Korea stem from already pre-existing dialects instead of a supposed post-war divergence.

Demographics

Traditional Korean royal wedding ceremony with the male royal wearing royal costume
Main articles: Korean diaspora and Demographics of South Korea

Large-scale emigration from Korea began as early as the mid-1860s, mainly into the Russian Far East and Northeast China (also historically known by the exonym Manchuria); these populations would later grow to more than two million Koreans in China and several hundred thousand Koryo-saram (ethnic Koreans in Central Asia and the former USSR).[48][49] During the Korea under Japanese rule of 1910–1945, Koreans were often recruited and or forced into labour service to work in mainland Japan, Karafuto Prefecture (Sakhalin), and Manchukuo; the ones who chose to remain in Japan at the end of the war became known as Zainichi Koreans, while the roughly 40,000 Koreans who were trapped in Karafuto after the Soviet invasion are typically referred to as Sakhalin Koreans.[50][51]

South Korea

In June 2012, South Korea's population reached 50 million[52] and by the end of 2016, South Korea's population has surpassed 51 million people.[53] Since the 2000s, South Korea has been struggling with a low birthrate, leading some researchers to suggest that if current population trends hold, the country's population will shrink to approximately 38 million population towards the end of the 21st century.[54] In 2018, fertility in South Korea became again a topic of international debate after only 26,500 babies were born in October and an estimated of 325,000 babies in the year, causing the country to have the lowest birth rate in the world.[55][56][57]

North Korea

Further information: Demographics of North Korea
North Korean soldiers wearing Soviet-inspired uniform in the Joint Security Area

Estimating the size, growth rate, sex ratio, and age structure of North Korea's population has been extremely difficult. Until release of official data in 1989, the 1963 edition of the North Korea Central Yearbook was the last official publication to disclose population figures. After 1963 demographers used varying methods to estimate the population. They either totalled the number of delegates elected to the Supreme People's Assembly (each delegate representing 50,000 people before 1962 and 30,000 people afterwards) or relied on official statements that a certain number of persons, or percentage of the population, was engaged in a particular activity. Thus, on the basis of remarks made by President Kim Il Sung in 1977 concerning school attendance, the population that year was calculated at 17.2 million persons. During the 1980s, health statistics, including life expectancy and causes of mortality, were gradually made available to the outside world.[58]

In 1989, the Central Bureau of Statistics released demographic data to the United Nations Population Fund in order to secure the UNFPA's assistance in holding North Korea's first nationwide census since the establishment of the state in 1948. Although the figures given to the United Nations might have been distorted, it appears that in line with other attempts to open itself to the outside world, the North Korean regime has also opened somewhat in the demographic realm. Although the country lacks trained demographers, accurate data on household registration, migration, and births and deaths are available to North Korean authorities. According to the United States scholar Nicholas Eberstadt and demographer Brian Ko, vital statistics and personal information on residents are kept by agencies on the ri ("village", the local administrative unit) level in rural areas and the dong ("district" or "block") level in urban areas.[58]

Korean diaspora

Korean emigration to the U.S. was known to have begun as early as 1903, but the Korean American community did not grow to a significant size until after the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965; as of 2017, excluding the undocumented and uncounted, roughly 1.85 million Koreans emigrants and people of Korean descent live in the United States according to the official figure by the US Census.[59] The Greater Los Angeles Area and New York metropolitan area in the United States contain the largest populations of ethnic Koreans outside of Korea or China. The Korean population in the United States represents a small share of the American economy, but has a disproportionately positive impact.[citation needed] Korean Americans have a savings rate double that of the U.S. average and also graduate from college at a rate double that of the U.S. average, providing highly skilled and educated professionals to the American workforce.[citation needed] According to the U.S. Census Bureau's Census 2021 data, median household earnings for Korean Americans was $82,946, approximately 19.0% higher than the U.S. average at the time of $69,717.[60]

Significant Overseas Korean populations are also present in China, Japan, Argentina, Brazil, and Canada as well. The number of Koreans in Indonesia grew during the 1980s, while during the 1990s and 2000s the number of Koreans in the Philippines and Koreans in Vietnam have also grown significantly.[61][62] In Central Asia, significant populations reside in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, as well as parts of Russia including the Far East. Known as Koryo-saram, many of these are descendants of Koreans who were forcely deported during the Soviet Union's Stalin regime.[63] The Korean overseas community of Uzbekistan is the 5th largest outside Korea.[4]

Koreans in the United Kingdom now form Western Europe's largest Korean community, albeit still relatively small; Koreans in Germany used to outnumber those in the UK until the late 1990s. In Australia, Korean Australians comprise a modest minority. Koreans have migrated[where?] significantly since the 1960s.

Part-Korean populations

Pak Noja said that there were 5,747 Japanese-Korean couples in Korea at the end of 1941.[64] Pak Cheil estimated there to be 70,000 to 80,000 "semi-Koreans" in Japan in the years immediately after the war.[65] Many of them remained in Japan as Zainichi Koreans, maintaining their Korean heritage. However, due to assimilation, their numbers are much lower in recent times.

Kopinos are people of mixed Filipino and Korean descent. The proliferation of Kopinos in the Philippines has been a source of controversy as many Kopinos are born to South Korean fathers who impregnate Filipino women and then abandon them.[66] The 'Mixed Filipino Heritage Act of 2020' estimated there were around 30,000 Kopinos.[67]

Lai Đại Hàn is a Vietnamese term referring to mixed children born to South Korean men and South Vietnamese women during the Vietnam War. These children were largely conceived as the result of wartime rape. No exact data is available on the number of Korean-Vietnamese because many of them choose to conceal their roots, but an estimate by a Korean scholar says the number of Lai Dai Han around the world is at least 5,000 to as many as 150,000.[68][69][70]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In 2019, 95.1% of South Korea population was South Korean by nationality and 4.9% were of foreign nationality. South Korea is thus considered one of the most ethnically homogeneous societies in the world. Precise number of ethnic Koreans specifically is difficult to estimate since South Korean statistics do not record ethnicity. Furthermore, many immigrants are repatriated ethnic Koreans themselves while unknown number of South Korean citizens are not ethnically Korean which skews any statistical estimate. Some of the largest groups of immigrants are ethnic Koreans from China (Joseonjok), Japan (Zainichi) and the former Soviet Union (Koryo-saram).
  2. ^ Due to the country's isolationist policies, North Korea is presumed to be almost entirely homogeneous.
  3. ^ This includes South Korean and North Korean people in China. Korean with Chinese citizenship is referred to in China as Joseonjok in Korean and Chaoxianzu in Mandarin Chinese.
  4. ^ Referred to in Japan as Zainichi in Japanese.
  5. ^ Koreans of Uzbekistan are part of the wider Koryo-saram identity.
  6. ^ Koreans of Russia are part of the wider Koryo-saram identity.
  7. ^ Koreans of Kazkahstan are part of the wider Koryo-saram identity.
  8. ^ South Korean: 한민족/한국인/한국사람, 韓民族/韓國人/韓國사람, Han minjok (Han race), Hanguk-in (persons of the Han country), Hanguksaram (Han country people), North Korean: 조선민족/조선인/조선사람, 朝鮮民族/朝鮮人/朝鮮사람, Joseon minjok (Korean race), Joseon-in (Joseon persons)/Joseonsaram (Joseon people); see Names of Korea
  9. ^ Korean: 한국인, Hanja: 韓國人
  10. ^ Korean: 한국 사람
  11. ^ Korean: 조선인, Hanja: 朝鮮人
  12. ^ Korean: 조선 사람
  13. ^ Chinese: 朝鲜族
  14. ^ Korean: 조선족, 조선사람
  15. ^ Korean: 재일조선인, 조선사람, 조선인
  16. ^ Korean: 고려 사람; Cyrillic: Корё сарам

References

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  2. ^ "Foreign population in Korea tops 2.5 million". The Korea Times. 24 February 2020. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
  3. ^ "Worldbank, 2020". Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r 재외동포현황(2021)/Total number of overseas Koreans (2021). South Korea: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2021. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  5. ^ "재외동포 현황" [Current status of overseas Koreans]. oka.go.kr. Office of Overseas Koreans, Republic of Korea. 2023.
  6. ^ Koreans at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013) Closed access icon
  7. ^ a b Horai, Satoshi; Murayama, Kumiko (1996). "mtDNA Polymorphism in East Asian Populations, with Special Reference to the Peopling of Japan". American Journal of Human Genetics. 59 (3). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cell Press: 579–590. PMC 1914908. PMID 8751859.
  8. ^ a b Yi, SoJeong; An, Hyungmi; Lee, Howard; Lee, Sangin (2014). "Ancestry informative SNP panels for discriminating the major East Asian populations: Han Chinese, Japanese and Korean". Annals of Human Genetics. 35 (10). Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons (published 2013): 477–485. doi:10.1097/FPC.0000000000000075. PMID 25029633. S2CID 43243512.
  9. ^ a b Siska, Veronika; Jones, Eppie Ruth; Jeon, Sungwon; Bhak, Youngjune; Kim, Hak-Min; Cho, Yun Sung; Kim, Hyunho; Lee, Kyusang; Veselovskaya, Elizaveta; Balueva, Tatiana; Gallego-Llorente, Marcos; Hofreiter, Michael; Bradley, Daniel G.; Eriksson, Anders; Pinhasi, Ron; Bhak, Jong; Manica, Andrea (2017). "Genome-wide data from two early Neolithic East Asian individuals dating to 7700 years ago". Science Advances. 3 (2) (published 1 February 2017): e1601877. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E1877S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1601877. PMC 5287702. PMID 28164156.
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  11. ^ Lee, Seokwoo (2016). The Making of International Law in Korea: From Colony to Asian Power. Brill Nijhoff. p. 321. ISBN 978-9004315785.
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  13. ^ Ahn, Sung-Mo (June 2010). "The emergence of rice agriculture in Korea: archaeobotanical perspectives". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 2 (2): 89–98. Bibcode:2010ArAnS...2...89A. doi:10.1007/s12520-010-0029-9. S2CID 129727300.
  14. ^ Kim, Jangsuk; Park, Jinho (5 May 2020). "Millet vs rice: an evaluation of the farming/language dispersal hypothesis in the Korean context". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e12. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.13. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10427441. PMID 37588344.
  15. ^ Janhunen, Juha (2010). "RReconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia". Studia Orientalia (108). ... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
  16. ^ Vovin, Alexander (31 December 2013). "From Koguryǒ to T'amna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 217–235. doi:10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov.
  17. ^ Whitman, John (1 December 2011). "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan". Rice. 4 (3): 149–158. Bibcode:2011Rice....4..149W. doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0.
  18. ^ "Vovin, Alexander (2008). From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly Riding to the South with Speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15. Linguistic evidence indicates speakers of
  19. ^ a b Kim, Jangsuk; Park, Jinho (2020). "Millet vs rice: an evaluation of the farming/language dispersal hypothesis in the Korean context". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e12. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.13. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10427441. PMID 37588344. He also suggests that the arrival of Koreanic in Korea was associated with the spread of the Korean-style bronze dagger culture from present-day northeast China to Korea around 300 BCE. ...

    While pottery styles clearly differ between northeast China and the Korean Peninsula, an influx of northeast Chinese pottery styles into Korea has not been detected, and the styles of the two areas remain distinct long after the appearance of millet with little change in Chulmun pottery styles over time. ...

    However, as outlined above, because the Korean Peninsula was already occupied by Chulmun hunter–fisher–gatherers since at least 6000 BCE, a key to evaluating the millet hypothesis is determining whether millet was adopted by the Chulmun foragers (diffusion) or whether it was brought along as a part of a large-scale migration of farmers from Liaoning. If millet was introduced as a result of a large-scale migration of farmers from Liaoning, an archaeologically detectable influx of Liaoning culture and changes in material culture after the introduction of millet should be expected, because vessel shape, manufacturing technology and the design layout and motifs of Korean Chulmun pottery markedly differ from those of Liaoning pottery. However, there is no detectable appearance of elements of Liaoning material culture that accompanies the arrival of millets. ...

    Even if millet was brought by some migrants from northeast China to Korea, archaeological evidence demonstrates that the scale of migration was probably not large enough to lead to a fundamental linguistic change or the dispersal of a linguistic family.
  20. ^ Osada, Naoki; Kawai, Yosuke (2021). "Exploring models of human migration to the Japanese archipelago using genome-wide genetic data". Anthropological Science. 129 (1): 45–58. doi:10.1537/ase.201215.
  21. ^ Miyamoto, Kazuo (January 2022). "The emergence of 'Transeurasian' language families in Northeast Asia as viewed from archaeological evidence". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 4: e3. doi:10.1017/ehs.2021.49. hdl:2324/4796095. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10426040. PMID 37588923. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the people of the Jeomtodae pottery culture, the direct ancestors of Three kingdom states, spoke Proto-Koreanic.
  22. ^ Whitman, John (December 2011). "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan". Rice. 4 (3): 149–158. Bibcode:2011Rice....4..149W. doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0. ISSN 1939-8433.
  23. ^ Sun, Na; Tao, Le; Wang, Rui; Zhu, Kongyang; Hai, Xiangjun; Wang, Chuan-Chao (2 January 2023). "The genetic structure and admixture of Manchus and Koreans in northeast China". Annals of Human Biology. 50 (1): 161–171. doi:10.1080/03014460.2023.2182912. ISSN 0301-4460. PMID 36809229. Koreans can also be modelled as deriving ancestry from a single source related to WLR_BA, consisting of the transmission route of farming from the northeast to the Korean Peninsula and even the Japanese islands (Kwak et al. 2017; Kim and Park 2020).
  24. ^ Wang, Rui; Wang, Chuan-Chao (8 August 2022). "Human genetics: The dual origin of Three Kingdoms period Koreans". Current Biology. 32 (15): R844–R847. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.044. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 35944486. The northern East Asian ancestry was suggested to be related to the Neolithic West Liao River farmers in northeast China, who were an admixture of ANA and NYR ancestry3. The finding indicated that West Liao River-related farmers might have spread the proto-Korean language as their ancestry was found to be predominant in extant Koreans. Proto-Korean groups, in turn, introduced West Liao River-like ancestry into the gene pool of present-day Japan5.
  25. ^ Ning, Chao; Li, Tianjiao; Wang, Ke; Zhang, Fan; Li, Tao; Wu, Xiyan; Gao, Shizhu; Zhang, Quanchao; Zhang, Hai; Hudson, Mark J.; Dong, Guanghui; Wu, Sihao; Fang, Yanming; Liu, Chen; Feng, Chunyan (1 June 2020). "Ancient genomes from northern China suggest links between subsistence changes and human migration". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 2700. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.2700N. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16557-2. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-30F2-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7264253. PMID 32483115.
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  30. ^ Kim, Wook (April 2011). "High frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroup O2b-SRY465 lineages in Korea: a genetic perspective on the peopling of Korea". Investigative Genetics. 2 (10): 10. doi:10.1186/2041-2223-2-10. PMC 3087676. PMID 21463511.
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Sources

Further reading

  • Breen, Michael (2004). The Koreans: Who They Are, What They Want, Where Their Future Lies. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-4668-6449-8.

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