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The near-open central vowel, or near-low central vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɐ⟩, a rotated lowercase letter a.
The IPA prefers terms "close" and "open" for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, a large number of linguists, perhaps a majority, prefer the terms "high" and "low".
Features
- Its vowel height is near-open, also known as near-low, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to an open vowel, but is slightly more constricted – that is, the tongue is positioned similarly to a low vowel, but slightly higher.
- Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel.
- It may be rounded or, more often, unrounded. If precision is desired, the symbol for the open-mid central unrounded vowel may be used with a lowering diacritic, for the unrounded near-open central vowel, [ɜ̞], and the symbol for the open-mid central rounded vowel with a lowering diacritic may be used for the rounded near-open central vowel, [ɞ̞].
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic[1] | قطة | [qɪtˤ.tˤɐ] | 'cat' | Allophone of long and short /a/ for Persian Gulf speakers. See Arabic phonology | |
| Bulgarian | ъгъл | [ˈɤ̞ɡɐɫ] | 'angle' | ||
| Catalan | Barcelona metropolitan area[2][3] |
emmagatzemar | [ɐm(ː)ɐɰɐd͡z̺ɐˈmä] | 'to store' | Local realization of /ə/.[2][3] See Catalan phonology |
| Chinese | Cantonese | 心 sam1 | [sɐm˥] | 'heart' | See Cantonese phonology |
| Danish | Standard[4][5][6][7] | ånd | [ɐ̠nˀ] | 'spirit' | Somewhat retracted[4][5][6][7] and somewhat rounded.[7] Most often transcribed as /ʌ/. See Danish phonology |
| Dawsahak | [nɐ] | 'to give' | |||
| Dutch | Limburg | letter | [ˈlɛtɐ] | 'letter' | Not all dialects. Corresponds to /ər/ in standard Dutch. |
| Eastern Flemish Brabant |
|||||
| The Hague | |||||
| Twente | |||||
| English | California[8] | nut | [nɐt] | 'nut' | ⟨ʌ⟩ may be used to transcribe this vowel. For most Australians it's fully open [ä], the same is true for some South Africans. In New Zealand it may be fronted [ɐ̟] or somewhat lower [ä].[9] See English phonology |
| Cultivated Australian | |||||
| New Zealand[9][10] | |||||
| Received Pronunciation[11] | |||||
| South African | |||||
| Scottish[12] | stack | [stɐ̟k] | 'stack' | Fronted; corresponds to [æ] in other dialects, and also [ɑː] in some other dialects. | |
| Cockney[13][14] | stuck | 'stuck' | Fronted; may be [a] instead. | ||
| Inland Northern American[15] | bet | [bɐt] | 'bet' | Variation of /ɛ/ used in some places whose accents have undergone the Northern cities vowel shift. | |
| German | Standard[16] | oder |  [ˈʔoːdɐ] (help·info) |
'or' | Allophone of /ər/ used in many dialects. See German phonology |
| Greek[17] | ακακία akakía | [ɐkɐˈci.ɐ] | 'acacia' | Most often transcribed /a/ for simplicity. See Modern Greek phonology | |
| Hindustani[18] | दस/دَس | [ˈd̪ɐs] | 'ten' | Common realization of /ə/.[18] See Hindustani phonology | |
| Korean[19] | 발 bal | [pɐl] | 'foot' | Somewhat lowered. Typically transcribed as /a/. See Korean phonology | |
| Lombard | Sant | [ˈsɐnt] | 'saint' | ||
| Luxembourgish[20] | Mauer | [ˈmɑʊ̯ɐ̠] | 'wall' | Somewhat retracted. Allophone of word-final /əʀ/. | |
| Portuguese | Fluminense | açúcar | [ɐˈsukɐχ] | 'sugar' | In complementary distribution with /a/.[21] Raised to [ɜ̝] in other variants (where it is a phoneme). See Portuguese phonology |
| General Brazilian[21] | cana | [ˈkɐ̃n̪ɐ] | 'cane' | ||
| European[22] | pão | [pɐ̃w̃] | 'bread' | Stressed vowel, mostly as a phonemic nasal vowel (when not followed by a nasal stop). Raised otherwise. | |
| Romanian | Moldavian dialects[23] | bărbat | [bɐrbat][stress?] | 'man' | Corresponds to [ə] in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology |
| Russian[24] | голова | [ɡəɫ̪ɐˈva] (help·info) |
'head' | Occurs mostly immediately before stressed syllables. See Russian phonology | |
| Slovene | Standard[25][26] | brat | [bɾɐ́t̪] | 'brother' | Corresponds to short /a/ in traditional pronunciation.[26] See Slovene phonology |
| Ukrainian | дитина | [dɪ'tɪnɐ] | 'kid, child' | Unstressed a. See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Vietnamese | ăn | [ɐn] | 'to eat' | See Vietnamese phonology | |
See also
Notes
- ^ Thelwall (1990), p. 39.
- ^ a b Rafel (1999), p. 14.
- ^ a b Harrison (1997), pp. 2.
- ^ a b Grønnum (1998), pp. 100.
- ^ a b Grønnum (2005), pp. 268.
- ^ a b Grønnum (2003).
- ^ a b c Basbøll (2005), p. 47.
- ^ Ladefoged (1999), p. ?.
- ^ a b Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
- ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
- ^ Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 186.
- ^ Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 305.
- ^ Hughes & Trudgill (1979), p. 35.
- ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (1997), A National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved March 15, 2013
- ^ Mangold (2005), p. 37.
- ^ Arvaniti (2007), p. 25.
- ^ a b Ohala (1999:102)
- ^ Lee (1999), p. 121.
- ^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
- ^ a b Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), pp. 91–92.
- ^ Pop (1938), p. 29.
- ^ Padgett & Tabain (2005), p. 16.
- ^ Jurgec (2007), p. 2.
- ^ a b Jurgec (2005), pp. 9 and 12.
References
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics 8: 97–208, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv
- Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
- Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 0-203-97876-5
- Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290
- Grønnum, Nina (2003), Why are the Danes so hard to understand?
- Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 87-500-3865-6
- Harrison, Phil (1997), The Relative Complexity of Catalan Vowels and Their Perceptual Correlates (PDF), UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 9
- Hughes, Arthur; Trudgill, Peter (1979), English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of British English, Baltimore: University Park Press
- Jurgec, Peter (2007), Schwa in Slovenian is Epenthetic, Berlin
- Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W (2004), Upton, Clive, ed., A handbook of varieties of English, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
- Ladefoged, Peter (1999), "American English", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 41–44
- Lee, Hyun Bok (1999), "Korean", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–122, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Mangold, Max (2005), Das Aussprachewörterbuch, Duden, ISBN 9783411040667
- Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
- Ohala, Manjari (1999), "Hindi", in International Phonetic Association, Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: a Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–103, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
- Padgett, Jaye; Tabain, Marija (2005), "Adaptive Dispersion Theory and Phonological Vowel Reduction in Russian" (PDF), Phonetica 62 (1): 14–54, doi:10.1159/000087223, PMID 16116302
- Pop, Sever (1938), Micul Atlas Linguistic Român, Muzeul Limbii Române Cluj
- Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (in Catalan) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 84-7283-446-8
- Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999), A Course in Phonology, Blackwell Publishing
- Scobbie, James M.; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers
- Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266
- Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, 2: The British Isles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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