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Chiropractic is a complementary and alternative health care profession which aims to diagnose, treat, and prevent mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system and their effects on the nervous system and general health. Chiropractors believe misalignments, or subluxations of the spine interfere with the body's self-regulating mechanisms, primarily the nervous system. A chiropractor may specialize in treating low back problems or sports injuries, or may combine chiropractic with manipulation of the extremities, physiotherapy, nutrition, or exercises to increase spinal strength or improve overall health. He/she may also use other complementary and alternative methods as a part of a holistic treatment approach. They do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery. While there is evidence that spinal manipulation can be effective for low back pain and headaches, some of the other claims that chiropractors make concerning the benefits to health are based mainly on subjective reports from clinical experience, while objective evidence from controlled trials is lacking.

Introduction

Chiropractic was founded in 1895 by Daniel David Palmer, and was based on the belief that all health problems could be prevented and treated using "adjustments" of the spine, and sometimes other joints, to correct what he termed "subluxations". He, and later his son, BJ Palmer, postulated that these subluxations were misaligned vertebrae which caused nerve compression that "interfered" with the transmission of what he termed "Innate Intelligence". This interference interrupted the proper flow of Innate Intelligence from "above, down, inside, and out" to the organ to which it traveled. As a result, the human body would experience "dis-ease" or disharmony which would result in a loss of health. He compared this process to stepping on a hose that slowed the flow of water to a garden. If you take your foot off the hose, the flow of water returns to normal and the garden will flourish.

While the "pinched hose theory" has mostly been abandoned, it is still used in a modified form by some chiropractors to explain the concept of vertebral subluxation. However, the concept of the subluxation, for which there is disputed scientific evidence, remains an integral part of the typical chiropractic practice. Nevertheless, in 2003 90% of chiropractors believed the vertebral subluxation complex played a significant role in all or most diseases, and practiced accordingly.^[1] The remainder limited their practices to the care of musculoskeletal problems.

Today there are 17 [17] accredited chiropractic colleges in the US and two in Canada, and an estimated 70,000 chiropractors in the United States, 5000 in Canada, 2500 in Australia, 1300 in the United Kingdom, and smaller numbers in about 50 other countries. In the U.S. and Canada, licensed individuals who practice chiropractic are commonly referred to as "chiropractors," "doctors of chiropractic," (DC) or "chiropractic physicians." Most patients who visit a chiropractor do so initially because of symptoms arising from musculoskeletal problems, especially low back and neck pain, although most chiropractors say they concern themselves with the overall health of the patient.^{[citation needed]}

The initial chiropractic technique was manipulation of the spine (called "adjustment") and remains the primary technique^{[citation needed]}. The chiropractic adjustment differs from other manipulative techniques in its precision and accuracy in correcting vertebral subluxations. Today's chiropractor may continue to adhere to the strict tenets of Palmer and use only spinal adjustments or he/she may also include a broad range of methods, short of drugs and surgery, that are directed at "correcting" subluxations and/or relieving musculoskeletal pain. Some doctors of chiropractic employ chiropractic assistants to work as office staff and perform therapeutic activities and may also employ massage and physiotherapists as adjuncts to chiropractic care. According to a 2002 survey released in 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, chiropractic was the fourth most commonly used complementary and alternative medicine therapy among adults in the United States (7.5%)^[2][3]. It is now practiced in hundreds of different ways.^[4] The U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook said:

Because chiropractors emphasize the importance of healthy lifestyles and do not prescribe drugs or perform surgery, chiropractic care is appealing to many health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treatment of the back, neck, extremities, and joints has become more accepted as a result of research and changing attitudes about alternative, noninvasive health care practices. [18]

Spinal adjustments, chiropractic's primary technique, may provide short-term relief of certain forms of back and neck pain, headaches, and other spine-related conditions, but studies show conflicting results. For example, a systematic review (1997) noted "Strong evidence was found for the effectiveness of spinal manipulation, back schools and exercise therapy, especially for short-term effects."^[5] However, a more recent (2006) systematic review concluded "Collectively these data do not demonstrate that spinal manipulation is an effective intervention for any condition. Given the possibility of adverse effects, this review does not suggest that spinal manipulation is a recommendable treatment."^[6]

Chiropractic may be able to show it can be a partner in today's cost-conscious healthcare environment. A 2005 study stated that "the inclusion of a chiropractic benefit resulted in a reduction in the rates of surgery, advanced imaging, inpatient care, and plain-film radiographs."^[7]

Chiropractic is also used by some professional athletes. The U.S. Olympic Medical Services Staff includes doctors of chiropractic who work with medical doctors for the benefit of the athletes. [19]

There are two main groups of chiropractors, known within the field as "straights" and "mixers". Both groups treat patients using a subluxation based treatment system. Differences are based on the reasons for giving adjustments, claims made about the effects of those adjustments, and various additional treatments or sub-specialities provided.

Straight chiropractors are the oldest movement, operating half of the accredited schools and graduating 75% of practicing chiropractors.^{[citation needed]} They largely follow the writings of chiropractic founder DD Palmer and his son BJ Palmer, but have expanded the earlier theories by suggesting alternative mechanisms. Straight chiropractors fully accept Palmer's hypothesis that spinal adjustments remove interference to the human nervous system and improve communication between the brain and target tissues. Treatments are assumed to remove a primary underlying risk factor for disease rather than treat a patient's diseases per se. As a result, straight chiropractors view the diagnosis of patient complaints as unnecessary and avoid it if possible. Instead they rely on a collection of tests, many being proprietary to chiropractic while some are shared among the health professions (i.e. motion palpation which is used by some physical therapists). The objective of chiropractic testing is to identify vertebral subluxations and determine a plan of treatment. This stance against diagnosing patient complaints has been a source of contention within the profession because accreditation standards mandate that differential diagnosis be taught in all chiropractic programs so that the care provided to patients is safe and relevant to their complaints. Moreover, several state chiropractic licensing boards mandate that patient complaints be diagnosed prior to receiving care. Most straight chiropractors limit treatment to spinal adjustments.

Mixer chiropractors are an early offshoot of the straight movement. Their chiropractic schools comprise 50% of the ones in operation but produce only 25% of graduating chiropractors. This branch of chiropractic originated from naturopathic, osteopathic, medical, and even chiropractic doctors who attended the Palmer College of Chiropractic and then re-organized the treatment system to include a wider number of diagnostic and treatment approaches. They eventually split and formed various other chiropractic schools including the National College of Chiropractic. Their treatments may include naturopathy and physical therapy devices. While still subluxation based, mixer chiropractors also administer therapeutic techniques to treat problems associated with both the spine and extremities, including musculoskeletal issues such as pain and decreased range of motion. Mixer chiropractors use a modified form of medical diagnosis which considers vertebral subluxations to be a form of osteoarthritis. Diagnosis is made through a process of elimination after ruling out other known disorders, noting general signs of mechanical dysfunction in the spine, and through straight chiropractic analysis procedures as described above.^[8]

Although chiropractic has gained more acceptance in the last 40 years as an appropriate treatment for certain back, neck and other spine-related problems, resulting in increased usage, ^{[citation needed]} statistics in the later years have shown some variations from these trends: student enrollments fell 39.9% between 1996 and 2002, ^[9] and the percentage of the adult population that uses chiropractic fell by 25% from 1997 to 2002. ^[10] The statistics for student enrollments seem to be rising again, while patient use statistics are still uncertain.^{[citation needed]}

History

In 1885, the world was well into the second industrial revolution, marked by innovation and creativity. Health care had recently emerged from the drastic practice of heroic medicine and was well into an age of alternatives to this form of remedy. All varieties of treatments and cures including scientific medicine, vitalism, herbalism, magnetism and leeches, lances, tinctures and patent medicines were developing and competing to be the new method for the century. Neither consumers nor many practitioners had much knowledge of either the causes of, or cures for, illnesses.^[11] Allopathy, fueled by Louis Pasteur's refutal of the centuries old spontaneous generation theory in 1859, was growing rapidly. German bacteriologist, Robert Koch formulated his postulates bringing some much-needed scientific clarity to what was then a very confused field.[20] Drugs, medicines and quack cures were becoming more prevalent and were mostly unregulated. MD Andrew Taylor Still [21], ventured into magnetic healing (meaning hypnotism then) and bonesetting in 1875. He opened the American School of Osteopathy (ASO) in Kirksville, Missouri in 1892.[22] Daniel David Palmer (DD Palmer), a teacher, grocer turned magnetic healer opened his office of magnetic healing in Davenport, Iowa in 1886. After nine successful years,^[12] DD Palmer gave the first chiropractic adjustment to a deaf janitor, Harvey Lillard, on September 18,1895.

Conflicting accounts of the first Chiropractic adjustment

Palmer and his patient Harvey Lillard gave differing accounts of when and how Palmer began to experiment with spinal manipulation. Palmer recalled an incident in 1895 when he was investigating the medical history of a deaf man, Harvey Lillard. Lillard informed Palmer that while working in a cramped area seventeen years earlier, he felt a 'pop' in his back, and had been nearly deaf ever since. Palmer’s examination found a sore lump which indicated spinal misalignment and a possible cause of Lillard's deafness. Palmer corrected the misalignment, and Lillard could then hear the wheels of the horse-drawn carts in the street below. ^[13] Palmer said there was nothing accidental about this, as it was accomplished with an object in view, and the expected result was obtained. There was nothing 'crude" about this adjustment; it was specific so much so that no chiropractor has equalled it.[23]

Palmer's version was disputed by Lillard's daughter, Valdeenia Lillard Simons. She said that her father told her that he was telling jokes to a friend in the hall outside Palmer's office and, Palmer, who had been reading, joined them. When Lillard reached the punch line, Palmer, laughing heartily, slapped Lillard on the back with the hand holding the heavy book he had been reading. A few days later, Lillard told Palmer that his hearing seemed better. Palmer then decided to explore manipulation as an expansion of his magnetic healing practice. Simons said "the compact was that if they can make [something of] it, then they both would share. But, it didn't happen." ^[14]

Early growth

After the case of Harvey Lillard, Palmer stated: "I had a case of heart trouble which was not improving. I examined the spine and found a displaced vertebra pressing against the nerves which innervate the heart. I adjusted the vertebra and gave immediate relief -- nothing "accidental" or "crude" about this. Then I began to reason if two diseases, so dissimilar as deafness and heart trouble, came from impingement, a pressure on nerves, were not other disease due to a similar cause? Thus the science (knowledge) and art (adjusting) of Chiropractic were formed at that time." ^[13]

DD Palmer asked a patient and friend, Rev. Samuel Weed, to help him name his discovery. He suggested combining the words cheiros and praktikos (meaning "done by hand") to describe Palmer's treatment method, creating the term chiropractic. In 1896, DD added a school to his magnetic healing infirmary and began to teach others his method. It would be become known as Palmer School of Chiropractic (PSC, now Palmer College of Chiropractic). Among the first graduates were Andrew P. Davis MD,DO, William A. Seally,MD, BJ Palmer (DD's son), Solon M. Langworthy, John Howard, and Shegataro Morikubo.

Langworthy would move to Cedar Rapids, Iowa and open the second chiropractic school in 1903, the American School of Chiropractic & Nature Cure (ASC & NC) combining it with naturapathy cures and Osteopathy.^[15] DD Palmer, who was not interested in mixing chiropractic with other cures, turned down an offer to be a partner.

Changing political and healthcare environment

The early 19th century had seen the rise of patent medicine and the nostrum trade. Although some remedies were marketed through doctors of medicine, most were sold directly to consumers by lay people with the use of questionable advertising claims. The addictive, and sometimes toxic, effects of some remedies, especially morphine and mercury-based folk cures, prompted the early laws that defined the practice of medicine. In the mid 1800's, as the germ theory struggled to replace the metaphysical causes of disease, the search for invisible microbes required the world to embrace the scientific method as a way to discover the cause of disease. In 1847, the American Medical Association formed to establish standards for the preliminary medical education and for the degree of MD. In 1849, a board was established to analyze quack remedies and nostrums and to enlighten the public in regard to the nature and danger of such remedies.^[16] Relationships were developed with pharmaceutical companies in an effort to curb the patent medicine crisis and consolidate the patient base around the medical doctor. By the turn of the century, the AMA had created a Committee on National Legislation to represent the Association's interest in Washington^[16] and re-organized as the national organization of state and local associations. By 1910, the AMA was a powerful national force; this was the beginning of organized medicine.[24].

Just before 1881, the teaching profession had begun significant changes as well. Advances in chemistry and science in Germany, were creating strong incentives to create markets for the sale of their new products. By 1895, the new "Kulturopolitik" ideology of "First teach them; then, sell them" had begun creating the political pressure necessary to emphasize and improve teaching methods in science and math in schools and colleges in the US. The medical schools were the first to suffer the attack. They were ridiculed and frowned upon as being obsolete -- inadequate -- and inefficient. The crisis attracted the attention of the world's richest men. In 1901 the "Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research" was started by the John D. Rockefeller. By 1910, as a direct result of the Flexnor report financed by the Carnegie Foundation, hundreds of medical and homeopathic schools were forced to close their doors.

Osteopathy vs Chiropractic

As there was no constitutional protection or patent for new discoveries in the fields of knowledge, the claims for the drugless healing professions took on a life of their own. In 1896, DD Palmer's first descriptions for chiropractic were strikingly similar to Andrew Still's principles of osteopathy established a decade earlier. Both described the body as a "machine" whose parts could be manipulated to effect a drugless cure. Both professed to effect the blood and nerves and promote health, though Palmer stated he concentrated on reducing "heat" from friction of the misaligned parts and Still claimed to enhance the flow of blood. As word spread about the new doctor of drugless healing in Iowa, osteopaths began a campaign to protect what they perceived as their rights to their profession. Political efforts on the state level resulted in laws protecting the practice of osteopathy.

Medicine vs Chiropractic

In September, 1899 a campaign against all drugless healers in Iowa was initiated by Davenport MD, Heinrich Matthey. Suddenly the existing state law, which referred to the healing arts, was severely denounced. The demand was made for a change in the statute to prevent any drugless healer practicing in the state. Matthey warned that health education could no longer be entrusted to anyone but the doctor of medicine. (lerner pg 46) Osteopathic schools across the country responded immediately by developing a program of college inspection and accreditationpg 11. DD Palmer, whose school had just graduated its 7th student, insisted that his new science did not require the same courses or license as medicine as his graduates did not prescribe drugs or evaluate blood or urine. However, in 1901, DD was charged with misrepresenting to a student a course in Chiropractic which was not a real science.(lerner pg57) He persisted in his strong stance against licensure citing freedom of choice as his cause. He would be arrested twice more by 1906 and though he contended that he was not practicing medicine, he was convicted for professing he could cure disease without a license in medicine or osteopathy.

Dr. Solon Langworthy, who continued to mix chiropractic at the ASC&NC, took a different route for chiropractic. He improved classrooms and provided a curriculum of study instead of the single course. He narrowed the scope of chiropractic to the treatment of the spine and nerve, leaving blood to the osteopath, and began to refer to the brain as the "life force". He was the first to use the word subluxation to describe the misalignment that narrowed the "spinal windows" (or intervertebral foreman) and interrupted the nerve energy. In 1906, Dr. Langworthy published the very first book on Chiropractic, which was called "Modernized Chiropractic" -- "Special Philosophy -- A Distinct System". He brought chiropractic into the scientific arena.

DD responded to Langworthy with malace concerning the mixing of chiropractic and even managed to get the Governor of Minnesota to veto legislation that would have allowed ASC&NC students to practice in his state. But he did accept some of the concepts laid out by Langworthy. He introduced the concept of Innate Intelligence circa 1904. Innate, he believed, was an intelligent entity which directed all the functions of the body, and used the nervous system to exert its influence. (Keating et al., writing for the Association for the History of Chiropractic)

After DD's conviction in 1906 and spending time in jail, he was forced to turn over his interests in the PSC to BJ's new wife Mabel and relocate first to Oklahoma and then to California. BJ Palmer was now in charge of the PSC, the Fountainhead of Chiropractic.

BJ Palmer re-develops chiropractic

Prosecution of DCs for unlicensed practice after the conviction of DD Palmer and a previous charge against BJ Palmer resulted in BJ and several Palmer graduates creating the Universal Chiropractic Association (UCA). It's initial purpose was to be a protective mechanism for its members by covering all legal expenses should they get arrested.[25] Its first case came in 1907 when Shegataro Morikubo, DC, of Wisconsin was charged with unlicensed practice of osteopathy. It was a test of the new osteopathic law. In an ironic twist using mixer Langworthy's book Modernized Chiropractic, attorney Tom Moore was able to legally differentiate chiropractic from osteopathy based on the differences in the philosophy of chiropractic's "supremacy of the nerve" versus osteopath's "supremacy of the artery". Morikubo was freed and the victory would forever reshape the development of the chiropractic profession. From that point on, chiropractic was called a science, an art and a philosophy and BJ Palmer became the "Philosopher of Chiropractic".

The next 15 years saw the opening of 30 additional chiropractic schools, including John Howard's National School of Chiropractic (now the National University of Health Sciences) that moved to Chicago, Illinois. Each school attempted to develop its own identity, while BJ Palmer continued to develop the philosophy behind his father's discovery. BJ would later note:

"We are always mindful of those early days when UCA...used various expedients to defeat medical court prosecutions. We legally squirmed this way and that, here and there. We did not diagnose, treat, or cure disease. We analyzed, adjusted cause, and Innate in patient cured. All were professional matters of fact in science, therefore justifiable in legal use to defeat medical trials and convictions."pg5

His influence over the next several years further defined the Mixers of chiropractic and those who practiced it Straight.^[15].

Straight vs Mixer

State laws to protect the practice of chiropractic eventually occurred in all fifty states in the US, but it was a hard fought struggle. Certainly Medical Examining Boards worked to keep all healthcare practices under their legal control, but an internal struggle among DC's on how to structure the laws significantly complicated the process. Initially, the UCA, led by B.J. Palmer, opposed state licensure altogether. Palmer feared such regulation would lead to allopathic control of the profession. The UCA eventually caved in, but B.J. remained strong in the opinion that examining boards should be composed exclusively of chiropractors (not mixers), and the educational standards to be adhered to were the same as the Palmer School. A "Model Bill" was drafted to present to all states that did not yet have a law.[26] They embarked on a method of "cleaning house" of mixers by warning state associations to purge their mixing members or face competition by the formation of a new "straight" association in their state.

Mixers created the American Chiropractic Association (no relation to today's ACA) whose purpose was to advance education and research and was designed according to standards set by the National School of Chiropractic.[27] and supported by other practicing mixers. Years later the ACA and UCA would join to form the National Chiropractic Association (today's ACA) while BJ Palmer would move on to form the Chiropractic Health Bureau (today's ICA). The differences in state laws that exists today can be traced back to these early legal struggles.

DD Palmer said he "received chiropractic from the other world" ^[17] during a seance, from a deceased physician named Dr Jim Atkinson. ^[18]

He regarded chiropractic as partly religious in nature, and in a letter of May 4, 1911 he said: "we must have a religious head, one who is the founder, as did Christ, Mohamed, Jo. Smith, Mrs. Eddy, Martin Luther and other who have founded religions. I am the fountain head. I am the founder of chiropractic in its science, in its art, in its philosophy and in its religious phase." ^[17]

Palmer’s son B. J. Palmer initiated research, development and promotion of chiropractic.

DD Palmer's effort to find a single cause for all disease led him to say:

A subluxated vertebra . . . is the cause of 95 percent of all diseases. . . . The other five percent is caused by displaced joints other than those of the vertebral column. (From: Palmer D.D. The Science, Art and Philosophy of Chiropractic. Portland, Oregon: Portland Printing House Company, 1910.)

Wilk et al. vs the American Medical Association

Before 1980, Principle 3 of the American Medical Association Principles of Medical Ethics stated: "A physician should practice a method of healing founded on a scientific basis; and he should not voluntarily professionally associate with anyone who violates this principle." Until 1983, the AMA held that it was unethical for medical doctors to associate with an "unscientific practitioner," and labeled chiropractic "an unscientific cult."

As a result of this policy, an antitrust suit was brought against the AMA and other medical associations in 1976 - Wilk et al vs American Medical Association et al. - by Wilk and other chiropractors. The landmark lawsuit ended in 1987 when the Federal Appeals Court found the AMA guilty of conspiracy and restraint of trade; the Joint Council on Accreditation of Hospitals and the American College of Physicians were exonerated. The court recognized that the AMA had to show its concern for patients, but was not persuaded that this objective could not have been satisfied in a manner less restrictive of competition, for instance by public education campaigns. The AMA then lost its appeal to the Supreme Court and had to allow its members to collaborate with chiropractors. ^{PDF of key transcripts}

The judge in the Wilk case said that the AMA had covered up research on the effectiveness of chiropractic for back pain. She then said that chiropractors clearly wanted "a judicial pronouncement that chiropractic is a valid, efficacious, even scientific health care service." She said no "well designed, controlled, scientific study" had been done, and concluded "I decline to pronounce chiropractic valid or invalid on anecdotal evidence." ^{PDF of key transcripts}

Chiropractic subluxation

DD Palmer imbued the term "subluxation" with a metaphysical and philosophical meaning. He held that certain dislocations of bones interfered with the "innate intelligence", a kind of spiritual energy or life force dependent upon a Universal Intelligence that connects the brain to the rest of the body. Palmer claimed that subluxations interfered with the proper communication of this innate intelligence with the rest of the body, and that, by fixing them, 100% of all diseases could be treated.

In 1998, Lon Morgan, D.C., wrote, in the Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association,

"Innate Intelligence clearly has its origins in borrowed mystical and occult practices of a bygone era. It remains untestable and unverifiable and has an unacceptably high penalty/benefit ratio for the chiropractic profession. The chiropractic concept of Innate Intelligence is an anachronistic holdover from a time when insufficient scientific understanding existed to explain human physiological processes. It is clearly religious in nature and must be considered harmful to normal scientific activity." [28]

In the mid-1990's, the Association of Chiropractic Colleges redefined a subluxation as a complex of functional and/or structural and/or pathological articular changes that compromise neural integrity and may influence organ system and general health. In 1997 the Foundation for Chiropractic Education and Research defined a subluxation as a joint problem (whether a problem with the way the joint is functioning, a physical problem with the joint, or a combination of any of these) that affects the function of nerves and therefore affects the body's organs and general health.

Today, chiropractors use the concept of Innate Intelligence to describe the body's self-healing physiology; accordingly, they hold that healthcare interventions should consider the person as a whole and that conservative (non-invasive) treatment approaches should be used where possible.

Philosophy of the subluxation

Both chiropractic and mainstream medicine hold that much of the body is controlled by nerve impulses sent to and from the brain along the spinal cord. Whether the brain commanding the foot to move, the foot signaling the brain that it is in pain, or even a simple patellar reflex, the spinal cord is involved. Outgoing impulses from the brain pass down the spinal cord and exit through the appropriate spinal nerve branch held between the vertebrae on either side of the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord; all of which are housed by vertebrae. If the vertebrae are misaligned (subluxated), chiropractic doctors believe that a spinal nerve can be squeezed or pinched and therefore message flow can be compromised. By aligning the vertebrae and removing restrictions on the spinal nerves, chiropractic claims to allow the spinal cord to more effectively relay messages to and from the brain; thus promoting better health.

Scientific Investigation of Chiropractic

Despite significant research efforts, chiropractic has so far failed to validate its treatment approach. There are three problem areas: a failure to show efficacy for the conditions treated, implausible mechanisms of action and the use of invalid biomechanical assessments.

Even when a valid mechanism of action is not determined, it would be sufficient for chiropractic to present evidence showing benefit for the claims made. Unfortuantely this is not the case (see [29]). There is scientific agreement that, wherever applicable, an evidence based medicine framework should be used to assess health outcomes, and that systematic reviews with strict protocols are an important part of objectively evaluating the efficacy of treatments. Where evidence from such reviews is lacking, this does not necessarily mean that the treatment is ineffective, only that the case for a benefit of treatment may not have been rigorously established. Organisations such as the Cochrane Collaboration and Bandolier publish such reviews. An editorial in The Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics in 2005, The Cochrane Collaboration: is it relevant for doctors of chiropractic?, proposed that involvement in Cochrane collaboration would be a way for chiropractic to gain greater acceptance within medicine. The collaboration has 11,500 contributors from more than 90 countries organised in 50 review groups. For chiropractic, relevant review groups include the Back Group; the Bone, Joint, and Muscle Trauma Group; the Musculoskeletal Group; and the Neuromuscular Disease Group. The editorial states:

"For example, a chiropractor may provide conservative care supported by a Cochrane review to a patient with carpal tunnel syndrome. If the patient's symptoms become progressive, the doctor may consider referring the patient for surgery using a recent Cochrane review that examined new surgical techniques compared with traditional open surgery for the said condition.”"

The Cochrane Collaboration found insufficient evidence that chiropractic is beneficial for asthma, carpal tunnel syndrome, and painful menstrual periods. Bandolier found insufficient evidence that chiropractic is beneficial for migraine, chronic low back pain and menopausal symptoms .

University of Saskatchewan sociologist Leslie Biggs interviewed 600 Canadian chiropractors in 1997, and found that 74.3% of them did not believe that controlled clinical trials were the best way to evaluate chiropractic, and 68.1% believed that most diseases are caused by spinal malalignment. [30]

There is much conflict in the results of chiropractic research. For instance, many chiropractors [31] claim to treat infantile colic. According to a 1999 survey of the Ontario Chiropractic Association (representing 83% of chiropractors in Ontario), 46% treated children for colic. ^[19] In 1999 a randomized controlled clinical trial with a blinded observer suggested that there is evidence that spinal manipulation may help infantile colic. ^[20] However, in 2001, a Norwegian double-blind study said “Chiropractic spinal manipulation is no more effective than placebo in the treatment of infantile colic.” ^[21]

American Medical Association

In 1997, the following statement was adopted as policy of the American Medical Association (AMA) after a report on a number of alternative therapies:[32]

"There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the efficacy of alternative therapies."

Safety

As with all interventions, risks may be associated with spinal manipulation. These risks, although rare, include vertebrobasilar accidents, strokes, disc herniations, vertebral fracture, and cauda equina syndrome, according to Harrison's. When compared to mobilization by physical therapists chiropractic has been found to have the same effectivness but with more side effects. ^[22]

The riskiest procedure is cervical manipulation (the 7 bones in the upper third of the spine), particularly passive rotation of the neck, known as the "master cervical" or "rotary break", which is thought to be linked to trauma, paralysis, strokes, and death.

Nothing more than a temporal relationship has ever been established in relation to severe complications and chiropractic intervention. Chiropractic continues to be one of the safest health care professions[33] and Chiropractors benefit from some of the lowest malpractice insurance premiums among the health care industry[34].

Documented serious complications after manipulation of the cervical spine are very rare (1 in 3-4 million manipulations or fewer). This estimate is based on international studies of millions of chiropractic cervical adjustments from 1965 to the present day. The "one in a million" estimate is echoed in an extensive review of spinal manipulation performed by the RAND corporation.[35] However, in another study, Dvorak cites figures of 1 in 400,000, while Jaskoviak reported approximately 5 million cervical manipulations from 1965 to 1980 at The National College of Chiropractic Clinic in Chicago, without a single case of vertebral artery stroke or serious injury [36]. Less conservative treatments such as neck surgery are also often used for conditions similar to the conditions chiropractors treat using spinal adjustments. Cervical spine surgery has a 3-4% rate of complication and 4,000-10,000 deaths per million neck surgeries.

With studies of this nature it is difficult to determine what percentage of incidents are reported. The RAND study, for example, assumed that only 1 in 10 cases would have been reported. Dr Edzard Ernst surveyed neurologists in Britain for cases of serious neurological complication occurring within 24 hours of cervical spinal manipulation during the past year. 35 cases had been seen by the 24 who responded, and none of those had been reported. His survey led him to conclude that underreporting was closer to 100%, rendering estimates "nonsensical." [37]

A 2001 study in the medical journal Stroke found that vertebrobasilar accidents (VBAs) are five times more likely in those aged <45 years who had visited a chiropractor in the week before the VBA, compared to controls who had not visited a chiropractor. [38]

Chiropractors cite a New Zealand Commission report as supporting the safety of chiropractic. The report said "We are satisfied that chiropractic treatment in New Zealand is remarkably safe." (Report of the Commission of Inquiry Into Chiropractic 1979:p 77). But this was disputed by the judge in the Wilk v. American Medical Association case; on safety, this report was found to be "unsatisfactory", and a review of the New Zealand report by the United States Congress' Office of Technology Assessment found 'serious problems' in the report's treatment of safety and efficacy issues. It concluded that the New Zealand report's review of the safety issue was 'unsatisfactory.' [39]

It should be noted that most studies performed that deal with the stroke issue and cervical manipulation do not take into account the difference between "manipulation" and the "Chiropractic adjustment". According to "a research report in the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, "manipulations" administered by a Kung Fu practitioner, GPs, osteopaths, physiotherapists, a wife, a blind masseur, and an Indian barber had been incorrectly attributed to chiropractors." The report goes on to say, "The words chiropractic and chiropractor have been incorrectly used in numerous publications dealing with SMT injury by medical authors, respected medical journals and medical organizations. In many cases, this is not accidental; the authors had access to original reports that identified the practitioner involved as a non-chiropractor. The true incidence of such reporting cannot be determined. Such reporting adversely affects the reader's opinion of chiropractic and chiropractors." (Terrett AGJ: Misuse of the literature by medical authors in discussing spinal manipulative therapy injury. JMPT 1995;18:203.) Chiropractic adjustments are set apart from manipulation due to their precision and specificity [40]. It should also be noted that there are nearly 200 different chiropractic techniques, which vary considerably in their application; such differences have never been taken into account in relation to safety issues.

Chiropractic education, licensing, and regulation

United States

Graduates of chiropractic school receive the degree Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.), are referred to as "doctor", and are eligible to seek licensure in all jurisdictions. The Council on Chiropractic Education [41] (CCE) sets minimum guidelines for chiropractic colleges, but additional requirements may be needed for a license depending on the jurisdiction where a chiropractor chooses to practice. Currently, all 19 chiropractic institutions are accredited by the CCE.

Students often enter chiropractic school with a Bachelor's degree, or with three years of post-secondary education in the sciences and other appropriate coursework. However, in 2005 only one chiropractic college required a baccalaureate degree as an admission requirement. [42] The minimum prerequisite for enrollment in a chiropractic college set forth by the CCE is 90 semester hours, and the minimum cumulative GPA for a student entering is 2.50. Commonly required classes include: psychology, biology, organic and inorganic chemistry, and physics. Other common medical classes are: anatomy or embryology, physiology, microbiology, diagnosis, neurology, x-ray, orthopedics, obstetrics/gynecology, histology, and pathology.

Chiropractic programs require at least 4,200 hours of combined classroom, laboratory, and clinical experience. The last 2 years stress courses in manipulation and spinal adjustment and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, orthopedics, neurology, geriatrics, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Graduates must complete 5 years of schooling and pass 4 national board exams to complete their education. To qualify for licensure, graduates must sit State examinations; most State boards require at least 2 years of undergraduate education, and an increasing number require a 4-year bachelor’s degree. All boards require the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited college leading to the Doctor of Chiropractic degree. Once licensed, most States require chiropractors to attend 12-48 hours of continuing education annually.

Chiropractic colleges also offer postdoctoral training in neurology, orthopedics, sports injuries, nutrition, rehabilitation, industrial consulting, radiology, family practice, pediatrics, and applied chiropractic sciences. After such training, chiropractors may take exams leading to "diplomate" status in a given specialty including orthopedics, neurology and radiology.

Australia

In Australia, chiropractic is taught at three universities: RMIT in Melbourne, Murdoch University in Perth and Macquarie University in Sydney. To be registered by various state Chiropractic Registration Boards, a Bachelor of Chiropractic Science, a Bachelor of Science or health-related degree, plus the successful completion of a full-fee paying postgraduate qualifying program for the Master of Chiropractic is required.

Modern Chiropractic Groups

1. Straight Straight chiropractors are a minority, and tend to be members of the Federation of Straight Chiropractic Organization (FSCO), International Chiropractors Association (ICA), and the World Chiropractic Alliance (WCA).
2. Mixing chiropractors combine contemporary medical diagnosis and treatment with chiropractic adjustments. Mixing style practitioners use adjustments to treat chiropractic subluxations, as well as nutrition and naturopathic style remedies for other disorders. Methods used include ultrasound, TENS, rehabilitation or the use of other diagnostic methods such as Applied Kinesiology (AK). Mixing chiropractic is itself divided into conservative and liberal groupsTemplate:Fn. Many mixers are members of the American Chiropractic Association (ACA), but there are also many exceptions.
3. Reform chiropractors are a small groups of mixers who advocate a limited use of chiropractic primarily for treatment of osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal conditions.

References

See also

• Applied kinesiology
• Manipulative therapy
• Naprapathy
• Osteopathy
• Physical therapy
• Reflexology

External links

Advocacy

Chiropractic organizations

• American Chiropractic Association (ACA)
• British Chiropractic Association (BCA)
• Canadian Chiropractic Association (CCA)
• Japanese Association of Chiropractors (JAC)
• International Chiropractors Association (ICA)
• National Association for Chiropractic Medicine
• World Chiropractic Alliance (WCA)
• World Federation of Chiropractic (WFC)
• Foundation for Chiropractic Education and Research (FCER)

Descriptions of chiropractic procedures

• Chiropractic treatments for back pain by Spine-health.com
• Glossary of Chiropractic Terms

Other resources

• Chiropractic Resource Organization
• Dynamic Chiropractic Online (ChiroWeb)
• Directory of Chiropractors in the United States
• The Chiropractic Profession and Its Research and Education Programs
• The Future of Chiropractic Revisited: 2005 to 2015

Other

• Cherkin, Daniel C.; Mootz, Robert D. (1997) Chiropractic in the United States: Training, Practice, and Research, available online
• Healey, James W. (1990) "It's Where You Put the Period", Dynamic Chiropractic, Volume 08, Issue 21 (October 10, 1990) available online

Critiques

• A Different Way To Heal? -- PBS - Scientific American Frontiers, Web Feature
• Chiropractic: science and antiscience and pseudoscience side by side -- Joseph C. Keating, Jr, PhD
• Commentary: The Specter of Dogma -- Joseph C. Keating, Jr., PhD
• Faulty Logic and Non-skeptical Arguments in Chiropractic -- Joseph C. Keating Jr, PhD