Eastern Bluebird

by | Dec 20, 2017 | Bluebirds

How Can We Help?
You are here:
< Back
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m →‎Beginnings of European jazz: Reference edited with ProveIt page #
Retswerb (talk | contribs)
Extended confirmed users
4,155 edits
c/e
(5 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 3: Line 3:
{{use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{about||the 2012 album by Bryan Ferry|The Jazz Age (The Bryan Ferry Orchestra album)|the 1998 album by Jack|The Jazz Age (Jack album)|the 1929 film|The Jazz Age (film)}}
{{about||the 2012 album by Bryan Ferry|The Jazz Age (The Bryan Ferry Orchestra album)|the 1998 album by Jack|The Jazz Age (Jack album)|the 1929 film|The Jazz Age (film)}}
{{AFI}}
{{Infobox historical event
{{Infobox historical event
|partof = the [[Roaring Twenties]]
|partof = the [[Roaring Twenties]]
Line 17: Line 18:


== Background ==
== Background ==
The term ''jazz age'' was in popular usage prior to 1920.{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}{{sfnm|Houghton Line|1919|1pp=6, 9|Literary Digest|1919|2p=31}} In 1922, American writer [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] further popularized the term with the publication of his short story collection ''[[Tales of the Jazz Age]]''.{{sfnm|Berg|1978|1p=217|Henderson|2013}}<ref name="Cooke 1998 on the Jazz Age"/>
The term ''jazz age'' was in popular usage prior to 1920.{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}{{sfnm|Houghton Line|1919|1pp=6, 9|Literary Digest|1919|2p=31}} In 1922, American writer [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] further popularized the term with the publication of his short story collection ''[[Tales of the Jazz Age]]''.{{sfnm|Berg|1978|1p=217|Henderson|2013}}<ref name="Cooke 1998 on the Jazz Age" />


=== Jazz music ===
=== Jazz music ===
Line 29: Line 30:
=== Prohibition ===
=== Prohibition ===
{{Main|Prohibition in the United States}}
{{Main|Prohibition in the United States}}
[[Prohibition in the United States]] was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In the 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a crime wave that shocked the U.S. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such as [[Al Capone]],{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=321}} and approximately $60&nbsp;million ({{Inflation|US|60000000.00|1937|fmt=eq}}) in illegal alcohol was smuggled across the borders of Canada and the United States.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=360}} The resulting illicit [[speakeasy|speakeasies]] that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and shows tunes.
[[Prohibition in the United States]] was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages from 1920 to 1933. In the 1920s, the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Well-organized criminal gangs took control of the beer and liquor supply for many cities, unleashing a crime wave that shocked the U.S. This prohibition was taken advantage of by gangsters such as [[Al Capone]],{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=321}} and approximately $60&nbsp;million ({{Inflation|US|60000000.00|1937|fmt=eq}}) in illegal alcohol was smuggled across the borders of Canada and the United States.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|p=360}} The resulting illicit [[speakeasy|speakeasies]] that grew from this era became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music that included current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes.


By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets," attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America.{{sfn|Orchowski|2015|p=32}} Prohibition ended with the ratification of the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-first Amendment]], which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the latter stages of the [[Progressive Era]].
By the late 1920s, a new opposition mobilized across the U.S. Anti-prohibitionists, or "wets," attacked prohibition as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing rural Protestant religious values on urban America.{{sfn|Orchowski|2015|p=32}} Prohibition ended with the ratification of the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-first Amendment]], which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933. Some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the latter stages of the [[Progressive Era]].
Line 35: Line 36:
=== Speakeasies/records ===
=== Speakeasies/records ===
{{CSS image crop|Image=Krazy Kat LOC npcc.04658.jpg|bSize=500|cWidth=300|cHeight=200|oTop=125|oLeft=90|Location=right|Description=Several patrons and a [[flapper]] await the opening of the ''[[Krazy Kat Klub]]'', a [[speakeasy]] in 1921.}}
{{CSS image crop|Image=Krazy Kat LOC npcc.04658.jpg|bSize=500|cWidth=300|cHeight=200|oTop=125|oLeft=90|Location=right|Description=Several patrons and a [[flapper]] await the opening of the ''[[Krazy Kat Klub]]'', a [[speakeasy]] in 1921.}}
Formed as a result of the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|eighteenth amendment]], speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could drink alcohol and relax or speakeasy.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|pp=207–210}} Jazz was played in these speakeasies as a countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on.<ref>{{harvnb|Ward|Burns|2001|p=76}}: "Theirs would become the music of choice in cabarets and speakeasies and roadhouses, and would provide the accompaniment for the period F. Scott Fitzgerald would soon call the Jazz Age."</ref> Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. [[Al Capone]], the famous organized crime leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in ''A Renegade History of the United States'', states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'"{{sfn|Russell|2010|p=230}} Also from A Renegade History of the United States, "The pianist [[Earl Hines]] remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got along well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very free with $100 tips.'"{{sfn|Russell|2010|p=230}} The illegal culture of speakeasies lead to what was known as "black and tan" clubs which had multiracial crowds.<ref>{{harvnb|Okrent|2010|p=212}}: "Another barrier fell with the arrival of the 'black and tans,' integrated cabarets and nightclubs, usually in black neighborhoods and usually featuring leading African-American jazz musicians."</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Peretti|1y=1992|1p=31|2a1=Ward|2a2=Burns|2y=2001|yp=128}}
Formed as a result of the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|eighteenth amendment]], speakeasies were places (often owned by organized criminals) where customers could drink alcohol and relax or speakeasy.{{sfn|Okrent|2010|pp=207–210}} Jazz was played in these speakeasies as a countercultural type of music to fit in with the illicit environment and events going on.<ref>{{harvnb|Ward|Burns|2001|p=76}}: "Theirs would become the music of choice in cabarets and speakeasies and roadhouses, and would provide the accompaniment for the period F. Scott Fitzgerald would soon call the Jazz Age."</ref> Jazz artists were therefore hired to play at speakeasies. [[Al Capone]], the famous organized crime leader, gave jazz musicians previously living in poverty a steady and professional income. Thaddeus Russell, in ''A Renegade History of the United States'', states: "The singer Ethel Waters fondly recalled that Capone treated her 'with respect, applause, deference, and paid in full.'"{{sfn|Russell|2010|p=230}} Also from A Renegade History of the United States, "The pianist [[Earl Hines]] remembered that 'Scarface [Al Capone] got along well with musicians. He liked to come into a club with his henchmen and have the band play his requests. He was very free with $100 tips."{{sfn|Russell|2010|p=230}} The illegal culture of speakeasies lead to what was known as "black and tan" clubs which had multiracial crowds.<ref>{{harvnb|Okrent|2010|p=212}}: "Another barrier fell with the arrival of the 'black and tans,' integrated cabarets and nightclubs, usually in black neighborhoods and usually featuring leading African-American jazz musicians."</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Peretti|1y=1992|1p=31|2a1=Ward|2a2=Burns|2y=2001|yp=128}}


There were many speakeasies, especially in Chicago and New York. New York had, at the height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies.<ref name="Cops and Speakeasies">{{harvnb|Okrent|2010|p=264}}: "Each of the thirty-two thousand speakeasies in New York probably paid a beat cop five dollars a day to keep the taps and the cash register open."</ref> At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a way to preserve his and Jack Kriendler's illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police.<ref name="Cops and Speakeasies"/> Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a button was pushed, tongue blocks under shelves of liquor would drop, making the shelves drop back and liquor bottles fall down a chute, break, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An alarm also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door flush with the wall. It had a small, almost unnoticeable hole for a rod to be pushed in to activate a lock and open the door.{{sfn|Hill|2004|pp=153, 155, 156}}
There were many speakeasies, especially in Chicago and New York. New York had, at the height of Prohibition, 32,000 speakeasies.<ref name="Cops and Speakeasies">{{harvnb|Okrent|2010|p=264}}: "Each of the thirty-two thousand speakeasies in New York probably paid a beat cop five dollars a day to keep the taps and the cash register open."</ref> At speakeasies, both payoffs and mechanisms for hiding alcohol were used. Charlie Burns, in recalling his ownership of several speakeasies employed these strategies as a way to preserve his and Jack Kriendler's illegal clubs. This includes forming relationships with local police.<ref name="Cops and Speakeasies" /> Mechanisms that a trusted engineer created include one that when a button was pushed, tongue blocks under shelves of liquor would drop, making the shelves drop back and liquor bottles fall down a chute, break, and drain the alcohol through rocks and sand. An alarm also went off if the button was pushed to alert customers of a raid. Another mechanism used by Burns was a wine cellar with a thick door flush with the wall. It had a small, almost unnoticeable hole for a rod to be pushed in to activate a lock and open the door.{{sfn|Hill|2004|pp=153, 155, 156}}


=== Rum running/bootlegging ===
=== Rum running/bootlegging ===
Line 91: Line 92:


=== Beginnings of European jazz ===
=== Beginnings of European jazz ===
By the 1920s jazz had spread around the world. According to ''The New York Times'' in 1922:<ref name="hershey19220625">{{Cite news |last=Hershey |first=Burnet |date=1922-06-25 |title=Jazz Latitude |pages=T5 |work=The New York Times |url=https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/ |access-date=2022-06-27}}</ref>
By the 1920s jazz had spread around the world. According to ''The New York Times'' in 1922:<ref name="hershey19220625">{{Cite news |last=Hershey |first=Burnet |date=1922-06-25 |title=Jazz Latitude |pages=T5 |work=The New York Times |url=https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/ |url-status=live |access-date=2022-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626162658/https://sundaymagazine.org/2022/06/26/jazz-latitutde/ |archive-date=June 26, 2022}}</ref>


{{quote|Jazz latitude is marked as indelibly on the globe as the heavy line of the equator. It runs from Broadway along Main Street to San Francisco: to the Hawaiian Islands, which it has lyricized to fame; to Japan, where it is hurriedly adopted as some new Western culture; to the Philippines, where it is royally welcomed back as its own; to China where the mandarins and even the coolies look upon it as a helpful sign that the Occident at last knows what is music; to Siam, where the barbaric tunes strike a kindred note and come home to roost; to India, where the natives receive it dubiously, while the colonists seize upon it avidly; to the East Indies, where it holds sway in its elementary form — ragtime; to Egypt, where it sounds so curiously familiar and where it has set Cairo dance mad; to Palestine, where it is looked upon as an inevitable and necessary evil along with liberation; across the Mediterranean, where all ships and all shores have been inoculated with the germ; to Monte Carlo and the Riviera, where the jazz idea has been adopted as its own enfant-chéri; to Paris, which has its special versions of jazz; to London, which long has sworn to shake off the fever, but still is jazzing; and back again to Tinpan Alley, where each day, nay, each hour, adds some new inspiration that will slowly but surely meander along jazz latitude.}}
{{quote|Jazz latitude is marked as indelibly on the globe as the heavy line of the equator. It runs from Broadway along Main Street to San Francisco: to the Hawaiian Islands, which it has lyricized to fame; to Japan, where it is hurriedly adopted as some new Western culture; to the Philippines, where it is royally welcomed back as its own; to China where the mandarins and even the coolies look upon it as a helpful sign that the Occident at last knows what is music; to Siam, where the barbaric tunes strike a kindred note and come home to roost; to India, where the natives receive it dubiously, while the colonists seize upon it avidly; to the East Indies, where it holds sway in its elementary form — ragtime; to Egypt, where it sounds so curiously familiar and where it has set Cairo dance mad; to Palestine, where it is looked upon as an inevitable and necessary evil along with liberation; across the Mediterranean, where all ships and all shores have been inoculated with the germ; to Monte Carlo and the Riviera, where the jazz idea has been adopted as its own enfant-chéri; to Paris, which has its special versions of jazz; to London, which long has sworn to shake off the fever, but still is jazzing; and back again to Tinpan Alley, where each day, nay, each hour, adds some new inspiration that will slowly but surely meander along jazz latitude.}}
Line 97: Line 98:
As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and [[Lonnie Johnson (musician)|Lonnie Johnson]], who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.{{sfn|Wynn|2007|p=67}} The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.
As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and [[Lonnie Johnson (musician)|Lonnie Johnson]], who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.{{sfn|Wynn|2007|p=67}} The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.


British jazz began with a [[Original Dixieland Jass Band#London tour|tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919]].{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=8–11}} In 1926, [[Fred Elizalde]] and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=29, 46, 67}} Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very soon, the resulting music craze in the United Kingdom led to a [[moral panic]] in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist [[John Bulloch Souter]]'s controversial 1926 painting ''[[The Breakdown]]''.{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=29–31}} The painting has been described as embodying the fears of Western civilization towards [[jazz]] music,{{sfn|Blake|1999|p=89}} and the painting was later destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned.{{sfnm|McKay|2005|1p=121–122|Shearer|2018}}
British jazz began with a [[Original Dixieland Jass Band#London tour|tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919]].{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=8–11}} In 1926, [[Fred Elizalde]] and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=29, 46, 67}} Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras, and jazz instrumentalists became numerous. Very soon, the resulting music craze in the United Kingdom led to a [[moral panic]] in which the threat of jazz to society was exemplified by Scottish artist [[John Bulloch Souter]]'s controversial 1926 painting ''[[The Breakdown]]''.{{sfn|Godbolt|2005|pp=29–31}} The painting has been described as embodying the fears of Western civilization towards [[jazz]] music,{{sfn|Blake|1999|p=89}} and the painting was later destroyed by its author to placate critics who insisted the work should be burned.{{sfnm|McKay|2005|1p=121–122|Shearer|2018}}


The European style of jazz entered full swing in France with the [[Quintette du Hot Club de France]], which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.{{sfn|Jackson|2002|pp=149–170}} Belgian guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] popularized [[gypsy jazz]], a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "[[Bal-musette|musette]]", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe [[Eddie Lang]] and [[Joe Venuti]] pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on [[Okeh Records]] in the late 1920s.{{sfnm|1a1=Ward|1a2=Burns|1y=2001|1p=299|Peretti|1992|2p=201}}
The European style of jazz entered full swing in France with the [[Quintette du Hot Club de France]], which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.{{sfn|Jackson|2002|pp=149–170}} Belgian guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] popularized [[gypsy jazz]], a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "[[Bal-musette|musette]]", and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments were steel-stringed guitar, violin, and double bass. Solos pass from one player to another as guitar and bass form the rhythm section. Some researchers believe [[Eddie Lang]] and [[Joe Venuti]] pioneered the guitar-violin partnership characteristic of the genre which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on [[Okeh Records]] in the late 1920s.{{sfnm|1a1=Ward|1a2=Burns|1y=2001|1p=299|Peretti|1992|2p=201}}
Line 108: Line 109:


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{Portal|1920s}}
{{Portal|1920s|Jazz}}
* [[Flapper]]
* [[Flapper]]
* ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''
* ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''
Line 118: Line 119:
=== Works cited ===
=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{Cite magazine | title = A German Interpreter of Jazz | magazine = [[The Literary Digest]] | volume = 62 | date = August 23, 1919 | publisher = [[Funk & Wagnalls]] | location = New York | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Literary_Digest/Dn1AAQAAMAAJ?gbpv=1&bsq=%22jazz%20age%22 | via = Google Books | access-date = November 20, 2021 | quote= "Some might, indeed, suppose that this muse had her jazz age behind her." | ref = {{harvid|Literary Digest|1919}}}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=August 23, 1919 |title=A German Interpreter of Jazz |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Literary_Digest/Dn1AAQAAMAAJ?gbpv=1&bsq=%22jazz%20age%22 |magazine=[[The Literary Digest]] |location=New York |publisher=[[Funk & Wagnalls]] |volume=62 |quote="Some might, indeed, suppose that this muse had her jazz age behind her." |ref={{harvid|Literary Digest|1919}} |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Barlow | first = William | title = Black Music on Radio During the Jazz Age | date = January 1, 1995 | journal = [[African American Review]] | publisher = [[Modern Language Association]] | location = St. Louis, Missouri | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 325–328 | doi = 10.2307/3042311 | jstor = 3042311}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Barlow |first=William |date=January 1, 1995 |title=Black Music on Radio During the Jazz Age |journal=[[African American Review]] |location=St. Louis, Missouri |publisher=[[Modern Language Association]] |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=325–328 |doi=10.2307/3042311 |jstor=3042311}}
* {{Cite book | last = Berg | first = A. Scott | author-link = A. Scott Berg | title = Max Perkins: Editor of Genius | year = 1978 | publisher = [[Simon & Schuster]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/maxperkinsedito000berg | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-671-82719-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Berg |first=A. Scott |url=https://archive.org/details/maxperkinsedito000berg |title=Max Perkins: Editor of Genius |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=1978 |isbn=0-671-82719-7 |location=New York |author-link=A. Scott Berg |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Berger | first = Morroe | title = Jazz: Resistance to the Diffusion of a Culture-Pattern | date = October 1947 | journal = [[The Journal of Negro History]] | publisher = [[Association for the Study of African American Life and History]] | location = Washington, D.C. | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 461–494 | doi = 10.2307/2714928 | jstor = 2714928| s2cid = 149563657 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Berger |first=Morroe |date=October 1947 |title=Jazz: Resistance to the Diffusion of a Culture-Pattern |journal=[[The Journal of Negro History]] |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Association for the Study of African American Life and History]] |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=461–494 |doi=10.2307/2714928 |jstor=2714928 |s2cid=149563657}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Biocca | first = Frank | title = Media and Perceptual Shifts: Early Radio and the Clash of Musical Cultures | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | year = 1990 | journal = [[The Journal of Popular Culture]] | pages = 1–15 | publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell]] | location = Hoboken, New Jersey | doi = 10.1111/j.0022-3840.1990.2402_1.x}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Biocca |first=Frank |year=1990 |title=Media and Perceptual Shifts: Early Radio and the Clash of Musical Cultures |journal=[[The Journal of Popular Culture]] |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1111/j.0022-3840.1990.2402_1.x}}
* {{Cite book | last = Blake | first = Jody | title = Le Tumulte Noir: Modernist Art and Popular Entertainment in Jazz-Age Paris, 1900-1930 | year = 1999 | publisher = [[Pennsylvania State University Press]] | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=juY_sR7kudgC&pg=PA89 | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-0-271-01753-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blake |first=Jody |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=juY_sR7kudgC&pg=PA89 |title=Le Tumulte Noir: Modernist Art and Popular Entertainment in Jazz-Age Paris, 1900-1930 |publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-271-01753-2 |location=University Park, Pennsylvania |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite magazine | last = Borzillo | first = Carrie | author-link = Carrie Borzillo | title = Women in Jazz: Music on Their Terms | date = June 29, 1996 | magazine = [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] | volume = 108 | issue = 26}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Borzillo |first=Carrie |author-link=Carrie Borzillo |date=June 29, 1996 |title=Women in Jazz: Music on Their Terms |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |volume=108 |issue=26}}
* {{Cite magazine | last = Chevan | first = David | title = Musical Literacy and Jazz Musicians in the 1910s and 1920s | magazine = Current Musicology | publisher = [[Columbia University Libraries]] | location = New York | year = 2002 | number= 71–73 | url = http://www.volusiagig.com/music/ChevanLiteracy.pdf | access-date = November 21, 2021 | doi = 10.7916/cm.v0i71-73.4825}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Chevan |first=David |year=2002 |title=Musical Literacy and Jazz Musicians in the 1910s and 1920s |url=http://www.volusiagig.com/music/ChevanLiteracy.pdf |url-status=live |magazine=Current Musicology |location=New York |publisher=[[Columbia University Libraries]] |doi=10.7916/cm.v0i71-73.4825 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225032212/http://www.volusiagig.com/music/ChevanLiteracy.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |access-date=November 21, 2021 |number=71–73}}
* {{Cite book | last = Cooke | first = Mervyn | title = Jazz | year = 1998 | publisher = [[Thames and Hudson]] | location = London | url = https://archive.org/details/jazz00cook | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-500-20318-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cooke |first=Mervyn |url=https://archive.org/details/jazz00cook |title=Jazz |publisher=[[Thames and Hudson]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-500-20318-7 |location=London |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Crow | first = Bill | author-link = Bill Crow | title = Jazz Anecdotes | year = 1990 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/jazzanecdotes0000crow | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-19-505588-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Crow |first=Bill |url=https://archive.org/details/jazzanecdotes0000crow |title=Jazz Anecdotes |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=0-19-505588-8 |location=New York |author-link=Bill Crow |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = De Roche | first = Linda | title = The Jazz Age: A Historical Exploration of Literature | year = 2015 | publisher = [[ABC-Clio]] | location = Santa Barbara, California | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=cOGOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18 | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-1-61069-668-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=De Roche |first=Linda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cOGOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18 |title=The Jazz Age: A Historical Exploration of Literature |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-61069-668-5 |location=Santa Barbara, California |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Dunkel | first = Mario | title = W.C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era | journal = Popular Music and Society | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | location = United Kingdom | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | year = 2015 | pages = 122–139 | doi = 10.1080/03007766.2014.994320| s2cid = 191480580 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dunkel |first=Mario |year=2015 |title=W.C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era |journal=Popular Music and Society |location=United Kingdom |publisher=[[Taylor and Francis]] |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=122–139 |doi=10.1080/03007766.2014.994320 |s2cid=191480580}}
* {{Cite book | last = Fass | first = Paula S. | author-link = Paula S. Fass | title = The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s | year = 1977 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-19-502148-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/damnedbeautifula0000fass_c0h2 | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | lccn = 76-42644}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fass |first=Paula S. |url=https://archive.org/details/damnedbeautifula0000fass_c0h2 |title=The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-19-502148-6 |location=New York |lccn=76-42644 |author-link=Paula S. Fass |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Fitzgerald | first = F. Scott | author-link = F. Scott Fitzgerald | title = Conversations with F. Scott Fitzgerald | year = 2004 | publisher = [[University Press of Mississippi]] | location = Jackson, Mississippi | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Conversations_with_F_Scott_Fitzgerald/M_BObJAl0lIC | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-1-57806-605-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fitzgerald |first=F. Scott |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Conversations_with_F_Scott_Fitzgerald/M_BObJAl0lIC |title=Conversations with F. Scott Fitzgerald |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57806-605-6 |location=Jackson, Mississippi |author-link=F. Scott Fitzgerald |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite web | last = Germuska | first = Joe | title = The Map | date = October 17, 1995 | publisher = [[Northwestern University]] | location = Evanston, Illinois | url = http://www.acns.nwu.edu/jazz/styles/style-map.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/19971210223539/http://www.acns.nwu.edu/jazz/styles/style-map.html | archive-date = December 10, 1997 | url-status = dead}} Derived from {{Cite book | last = Berendt | first = Joachim-Ernst | author-link = Joachim-Ernst Berendt | title = The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond | year = 1992 | publisher = [[Chicago Review Press|Lawrence Hill Books]] | location = Chicago, Illinois | isbn = 9781556520990 | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Jazz_Book/ViwYAQAAIAAJ | via = Google Books | ref = none}}
* {{Cite web |last=Germuska |first=Joe |date=October 17, 1995 |title=The Map |url=http://www.acns.nwu.edu/jazz/styles/style-map.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19971210223539/http://www.acns.nwu.edu/jazz/styles/style-map.html |archive-date=December 10, 1997 |publisher=[[Northwestern University]] |location=Evanston, Illinois}} Derived from {{Cite book |last=Berendt |first=Joachim-Ernst |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Jazz_Book/ViwYAQAAIAAJ |title=The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond |publisher=[[Chicago Review Press|Lawrence Hill Books]] |year=1992 |isbn=9781556520990 |location=Chicago, Illinois |ref=none |author-link=Joachim-Ernst Berendt |access-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718001248/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Jazz_Book/ViwYAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=July 18, 2022 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last = Godbolt | first = Jim | author-link = Jim Godbolt | title = A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–1950 | year = 2005 | orig-year = 1984 | publisher = [[Northway Publications]] | location = London | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofjazzinb0000godb | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-9537040-5-X}}
* {{Cite book |last=Godbolt |first=Jim |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjazzinb0000godb |title=A History of Jazz in Britain 1919–1950 |publisher=[[Northway Publications]] |year=2005 |isbn=0-9537040-5-X |location=London |author-link=Jim Godbolt |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive |orig-year=1984}}
* {{Cite magazine | last = Henderson | first = Amy | title = What the Great Gatsby Got Right About the Jazz Age | date = May 10, 2013 | magazine = [[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] | publisher = [[Smithsonian Institution]] | location = Washington, D.C. | url = https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/what-the-great-gatsby-got-right-about-the-jazz-age-57645443/ | access-date = November 21, 2021}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Henderson |first=Amy |date=May 10, 2013 |title=What the Great Gatsby Got Right About the Jazz Age |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/what-the-great-gatsby-got-right-about-the-jazz-age-57645443/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206101815/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/what-the-great-gatsby-got-right-about-the-jazz-age-57645443/ |archive-date=February 6, 2020 |access-date=November 21, 2021}}
* {{Cite book | last = Hennessey | first = Thomas | title = From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935 | year = 1973 | publisher = [[Northwestern University]] | location = Ann Arbor, Michigan | url = https://archive.org/details/fromjazztoswingb00henn | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | type = Ph.D. dissertation}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hennessey |first=Thomas |url=https://archive.org/details/fromjazztoswingb00henn |title=From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935 |publisher=[[Northwestern University]] |year=1973 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |type=Ph.D. dissertation |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Hill | first = Jeff | title = Defining Moments: Prohibition | year = 2004 | publisher = [[Omnigraphics]] | location = Detroit, Michigan | url = https://archive.org/details/prohibition0000hill | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-7808-0768-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Jeff |url=https://archive.org/details/prohibition0000hill |title=Defining Moments: Prohibition |publisher=[[Omnigraphics]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7808-0768-6 |location=Detroit, Michigan |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Jackson | first = Jeffrey | title = Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927–1934 | journal = [[French Historical Studies]] | publisher = [[Duke University Press]] | location = Durham, North Carolina | year = 2002 | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 149–170 | doi = 10.1215/00161071-25-1-149 | s2cid = 161520728}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Jeffrey |year=2002 |title=Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927–1934 |journal=[[French Historical Studies]] |location=Durham, North Carolina |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=149–170 |doi=10.1215/00161071-25-1-149 |s2cid=161520728}}
* {{Cite dictionary | author = <!--Not stated--> | title = jazz age, n. | work = [[Oxford English Dictionary]] | url = https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/100938?redirectedFrom=jazz+age#eid40333412 | date = September 2021 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = Oxford, England | access-date = November 20, 2021 | ref = {{harvid|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=jazz age, n. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, England |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/100938?redirectedFrom=jazz+age#eid40333412 |access-date=November 20, 2021 |date=September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120025417/https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/100938?redirectedFrom=jazz+age#eid40333412 |archive-date=November 20, 2021 |ref={{harvid|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}} |author=<!--Not stated--> |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite web | author = <!--Not stated--> | title = Jazz Origins in New Orleans | year = 2015 | publisher = [[National Park Service]] | location = New Orleans, Louisiana | url = https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm | access-date = November 21, 2021 | ref = {{harvid|National Park Service|2015}}}}
* {{Cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |year=2015 |title=Jazz Origins in New Orleans |url=https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605230346/https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm |archive-date=June 5, 2020 |access-date=November 21, 2021 |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |location=New Orleans, Louisiana |ref={{harvid|National Park Service|2015}}}}
* {{Cite book | last = Okrent | first = Daniel | author-link = Daniel Okrent | title = Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition | date = April 30, 2010 | publisher = [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] | location = New York | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Last_Call/MJbBqn3XWqAC | via = Google Books | lccn = 2009051127 | isbn = 978-0-7432-7702-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Okrent |first=Daniel |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Last_Call/MJbBqn3XWqAC |title=Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition |date=April 30, 2010 |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] |isbn=978-0-7432-7702-0 |location=New York |lccn=2009051127 |author-link=Daniel Okrent |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last = Orchowski | first = Margaret Sands | title = The Law that Changed the Face of America: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 | year = 2015 | publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield]] | location = Lanham, Maryland | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K0hKCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-1-4422-5137-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Orchowski |first=Margaret Sands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0hKCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |title=The Law that Changed the Face of America: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4422-5137-3 |location=Lanham, Maryland |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite journal | last = McCann | first = Paul | title = Performing Primitivism: Disarming the Social Threat of Jazz in Narrative Fiction of the Early Sixties | journal = [[The Journal of Popular Culture]] | publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell]] | location = Hoboken, New Jersey | year = 2008 | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | doi = 10.1111/J.1540-5931.2008.00541.X}}
* {{Cite journal |last=McCann |first=Paul |year=2008 |title=Performing Primitivism: Disarming the Social Threat of Jazz in Narrative Fiction of the Early Sixties |journal=[[The Journal of Popular Culture]] |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |volume=41 |issue=4 |doi=10.1111/J.1540-5931.2008.00541.X}}
* {{Cite book | last = McKay | first = George | title = Circular Breathing: The Cultural Politics of Jazz in Britain | year = 2005 | publisher = [[Duke University Press]] | location = Durham, North Carolina | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1ocHLuESAToC&pg=PT121 | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-0-8223-8728-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=McKay |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ocHLuESAToC&pg=PT121 |title=Circular Breathing: The Cultural Politics of Jazz in Britain |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8223-8728-2 |location=Durham, North Carolina |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last = Peretti | first = Burton W. | title = The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America | year = 1992 | publisher = [[University of Illinois Press]] | location = Urbana and Chicago | url = https://archive.org/details/creationofjazzmu0000pere | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-252-01708-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Peretti |first=Burton W. |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofjazzmu0000pere |title=The Creation of Jazz: Music, Race, and Culture in Urban America |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=0-252-01708-0 |location=Urbana and Chicago |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite news | last = Rodgers | first = Andrew | title = The Genna Brothers | work = [[Chicago Tribune]] | location = Chicago, Illinois | date = August 27, 1997 | url = https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-08-26-9801160503-story.html | access-date = December 13, 2019}}
* {{Cite news |last=Rodgers |first=Andrew |date=August 27, 1997 |title=The Genna Brothers |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |location=Chicago, Illinois |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-08-26-9801160503-story.html |url-status=live |access-date=December 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213043711/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-08-26-9801160503-story.html |archive-date=December 13, 2019}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Roth | first = Russell | title = On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz | journal = [[American Quarterly]] | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | location = Baltimore, Maryland | date = 1952 | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | doi = 10.2307/3031415 | issn = 0003-0678 | jstor = 3031415 | pages = 305–316}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Roth |first=Russell |date=1952 |title=On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz |journal=[[American Quarterly]] |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=305–316 |doi=10.2307/3031415 |issn=0003-0678 |jstor=3031415}}
* {{Cite book | last = Russell | first = Thaddeus | title = A Renegade History of the United States | year = 2010 | publisher = [[Simon and Schuster]] | location = New York | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Renegade_History_of_the_United_States/4CrdAkQQ9P4C | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-1-4165-7109-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Russell |first=Thaddeus |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Renegade_History_of_the_United_States/4CrdAkQQ9P4C |title=A Renegade History of the United States |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4165-7109-4 |location=New York |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last = Sales | first = Grover | title = Jazz: America's Classical Music | year = 1984 | publisher = [[The University of Michigan Press]] | location = Ann Arbor, Michigan | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Jazz/0IPuAAAAMAAJ | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-0-13-509126-5 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sales |first=Grover |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Jazz/0IPuAAAAMAAJ |title=Jazz: America's Classical Music |publisher=[[The University of Michigan Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-13-509126-5 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last = Santelli | first = Robert | title = The Big Book of Blues: A Biographical Encyclopedia | year = 2001 | publisher = [[Penguin Books]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/bigbookofbluesbi00sant | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-14-100145-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Santelli |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/bigbookofbluesbi00sant |title=The Big Book of Blues: A Biographical Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2001 |isbn=0-14-100145-3 |location=New York |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Savran | first = David | author-link = David Savran | title = The Search for America's Soul: Theatre in the Jazz Age | journal = [[Theatre Journal]] | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | location = [[Baltimore, Maryland]] | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | year = 2006 | pages = 459–476 | doi = 10.1353/tj.2006.0171 | jstor = 25069871| s2cid = 192117168 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Savran |first=David |author-link=David Savran |year=2006 |title=The Search for America's Soul: Theatre in the Jazz Age |journal=[[Theatre Journal]] |location=[[Baltimore, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=459–476 |doi=10.1353/tj.2006.0171 |jstor=25069871 |s2cid=192117168}}
* {{Cite book | last = Schuller | first = Gunther | author-link = Gunther Schuller | title = Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development | year = 1968 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/earlyjazzitsroot00schu | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | lccn = 68-17610}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schuller |first=Gunther |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyjazzitsroot00schu |title=Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1968 |location=New York |lccn=68-17610 |author-link=Gunther Schuller |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite news | last = Shearer | first = Carly | title = The Threat of Jazz: John Bulloch Souter's 'The Breakdown' | date = April 24, 2018 | publisher = [[Lyon & Turnbull]] | location = Edinburgh, Scotland | url = https://www.lyonandturnbull.com/news/article/the-threat-of-jazz/ | access-date = November 21, 2021}}
* {{Cite news |last=Shearer |first=Carly |date=April 24, 2018 |title=The Threat of Jazz: John Bulloch Souter's 'The Breakdown' |publisher=[[Lyon & Turnbull]] |location=Edinburgh, Scotland |url=https://www.lyonandturnbull.com/news/article/the-threat-of-jazz/ |url-status=live |access-date=November 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122194012/https://www.lyonandturnbull.com/news/article/the-threat-of-jazz/ |archive-date=November 22, 2021}}
* {{Cite book | title = The Houghton Line | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Houghton_Line/tpA7AQAAMAAJ | via = Google Books | volume = 24-25 | year = 1919 | publisher = E. F. Houghton & Co | location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | quote = "I am not convinced, however, that the 'jazz age' is the cause of the church losing its influence." | ref = {{harvid|Houghton Line|1919}}}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Houghton_Line/tpA7AQAAMAAJ |title=The Houghton Line |publisher=E. F. Houghton & Co |year=1919 |volume=24-25 |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |quote="I am not convinced, however, that the 'jazz age' is the cause of the church losing its influence." |ref={{harvid|Houghton Line|1919}} |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last1 = Ward | first1 = Geoffrey C. | last2 = Burns | first2 = Ken | author1-link = Geoffrey C. Ward | author2-link = Ken Burns | title = Jazz: A History of America's Music | year = 2001 | publisher = [[Pimlico]] | location = New York | edition = 1st | url = https://archive.org/details/jazzhistoryofame0000ward | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-679-76539-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Geoffrey C. |url=https://archive.org/details/jazzhistoryofame0000ward |title=Jazz: A History of America's Music |last2=Burns |first2=Ken |publisher=[[Pimlico]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-679-76539-4 |edition=1st |location=New York |author-link=Geoffrey C. Ward |author-link2=Ken Burns |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Ward | first = Larry F. | title = Bessie | journal = [[Notes (journal)|Notes]] | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | date = December 2004 | publisher = [[Music Library Association]] | location = Middleton, Wisconsin | doi = 10.1353/not.2004.0171 | jstor = 4487383| s2cid = 201766523 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Larry F. |date=December 2004 |title=Bessie |journal=[[Notes (journal)|Notes]] |location=Middleton, Wisconsin |publisher=[[Music Library Association]] |volume=61 |issue=2 |doi=10.1353/not.2004.0171 |jstor=4487383 |s2cid=201766523}}
* {{Cite news | last = Wilson | first = Nancy | author-link = Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) | title = Fletcher Henderson: 'Architect of Swing' | work = NPR's Jazz Profiles | publisher = [[NPR|National Public Radio (NPR)]] | location = Washington, D.C. | date = December 19, 2007 | url = https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing | access-date = November 21, 2021}}
* {{Cite news |last=Wilson |first=Nancy |author-link=Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) |date=December 19, 2007 |title=Fletcher Henderson: 'Architect of Swing' |work=NPR's Jazz Profiles |publisher=[[NPR|National Public Radio (NPR)]] |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing |url-status=live |access-date=November 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421232839/https://www.npr.org/2007/12/19/17370123/fletcher-henderson-architect-of-swing |archive-date=April 21, 2018}}
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Wynn | editor-first = Neil A. | title = Cross the Water Blues: African American Music in Europe | year = 2007 | publisher = [[University Press of Mississippi]] | location = Jackson, Mississippi | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cross_the_Water_Blues/PMaszIALuVYC | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-1-60473-546-8 | edition = 1st}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cross_the_Water_Blues/PMaszIALuVYC |title=Cross the Water Blues: African American Music in Europe |publisher=[[University Press of Mississippi]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-60473-546-8 |editor-last=Wynn |editor-first=Neil A. |edition=1st |location=Jackson, Mississippi |access-date=November 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718001250/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cross_the_Water_Blues/PMaszIALuVYC |archive-date=July 18, 2022 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


=== Further reading ===
=== Further reading ===
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{Cite book | last = Allen | first = Frederick Lewis | author-link = Frederick Lewis Allen | title = Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties | year = 1931 | publisher = [[Harper & Brothers]] | location = New York and London | url = https://archive.org/details/onlyyesterdayinf00alle | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | edition = 1st | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Frederick Lewis |url=https://archive.org/details/onlyyesterdayinf00alle |title=Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties |publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]] |year=1931 |edition=1st |location=New York and London |ref=none |author-link=Frederick Lewis Allen |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Allen | first = Frederick Lewis | author-link = Frederick Lewis Allen | title = Since Yesterday: The 1930s in America | year = 1939 | publisher = [[Harper and Row]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/sinceyesterdayth001025mbp | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Frederick Lewis |url=https://archive.org/details/sinceyesterdayth001025mbp |title=Since Yesterday: The 1930s in America |publisher=[[Harper and Row]] |year=1939 |location=New York |ref=none |author-link=Frederick Lewis Allen |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Dinerstein | first = Joel | title = Music, Memory, and Cultural Identity in the Jazz Age | journal = [[American Quarterly]] | publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | location = Baltimore, Maryland | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | year = 2003 | pages = 303–313 | doi = 10.1353/aq.2003.0012 | jstor = 30041974| s2cid = 145194943 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dinerstein |first=Joel |year=2003 |title=Music, Memory, and Cultural Identity in the Jazz Age |journal=[[American Quarterly]] |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=303–313 |doi=10.1353/aq.2003.0012 |jstor=30041974 |ref=none |s2cid=145194943}}
* {{Cite book | last = Doerksen | first = Clifford J. | title = American Babel: Rogue Radio Broadcasters of the Jazz Age | year = 2005 | publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]] | location = Philadelphia | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/American_Babel/qiAoQ1Z1iv0C | via = Google Books | isbn = 978-0-8122-0176-5 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Doerksen |first=Clifford J. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/American_Babel/qiAoQ1Z1iv0C |title=American Babel: Rogue Radio Broadcasters of the Jazz Age |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8122-0176-5 |location=Philadelphia |ref=none |via=Google Books}}
* {{Cite book | last = Dumenil | first = Lynn | author-link = Lynn Dumenil | title = The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s | year = 1995 | publisher = [[Hill and Wang]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/moderntemperamer0000dume | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-8090-1566-8 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dumenil |first=Lynn |url=https://archive.org/details/moderntemperamer0000dume |title=The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s |publisher=[[Hill and Wang]] |year=1995 |isbn=0-8090-1566-8 |location=New York |ref=none |author-link=Lynn Dumenil |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Fitzgerald | first = F. Scott | author-link = F. Scott Fitzgerald | editor-last = Wilson | editor-first = Edmund | editor-link = Edmund Wilson | title = Echoes of the Jazz Age | pages = 13–22 | work = [[The Crack-Up]] | year = 1945 | publisher = [[New Directions Publishing|New Directions]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/cerackup0000fsco/ | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-8112-0051-5 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fitzgerald |first=F. Scott |url=https://archive.org/details/cerackup0000fsco/ |title=Echoes of the Jazz Age |work=[[The Crack-Up]] |publisher=[[New Directions Publishing|New Directions]] |year=1945 |isbn=0-8112-0051-5 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Edmund |editor-link=Edmund Wilson |location=New York |pages=13–22 |ref=none |author-link=F. Scott Fitzgerald |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Kyvig | first = David E. | author-link = David E. Kyvig | title = Daily Life in the United States, 1920–1939: Decades of Promise and Pain | year = 2002 | publisher = [[Greenwood Press]] | location = Westport, Connecticut | url = https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinunite00kyvi | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-313-29555-7 | lccn = 2001023857 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kyvig |first=David E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinunite00kyvi |title=Daily Life in the United States, 1920–1939: Decades of Promise and Pain |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-313-29555-7 |location=Westport, Connecticut |lccn=2001023857 |ref=none |author-link=David E. Kyvig |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Leuchtenburg | first = William | author-link = William Leuchtenburg | title = The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–1932 | year = 1958 | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] | location = Chicago and London | url = https://archive.org/details/perilsofprosperi00leuc | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-226-47368-6 | lccn = 58-5680 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Leuchtenburg |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/perilsofprosperi00leuc |title=The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–1932 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1958 |isbn=0-226-47368-6 |location=Chicago and London |lccn=58-5680 |ref=none |author-link=William Leuchtenburg |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last1 = Lynd | first1 = Robert S. | last2 = Lynd | first2 = Helen Merrell | author1-link = Robert Staughton Lynd | author2-link = Helen Merrell Lynd | title = Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture | year = 1929 | publisher = [[Harcourt, Brace and Company]] | location = New York | url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156473 | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lynd |first=Robert S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156473 |title=Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture |last2=Lynd |first2=Helen Merrell |publisher=[[Harcourt, Brace and Company]] |year=1929 |location=New York |ref=none |author-link=Robert Staughton Lynd |author-link2=Helen Merrell Lynd |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Mowry | first = George E. | author-link = George E. Mowry | title = The Twenties: Fords, Flappers, & Fanatics | year = 1963 | publisher = [[Prentice-Hall]] | location = Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey | url = https://archive.org/details/twentiesfordsfla00mowr | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | lccn = 63-19425 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mowry |first=George E. |url=https://archive.org/details/twentiesfordsfla00mowr |title=The Twenties: Fords, Flappers, & Fanatics |publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]] |year=1963 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |lccn=63-19425 |ref=none |author-link=George E. Mowry |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Parrish | first = Michael E. | title = Anxious Decades: America in Prosperity and Depression, 1920–1941 | year = 1992 | publisher = [[W.W. Norton]] | location = New York and London | url = https://archive.org/details/anxiousdecadesam0000parr_n1p1 | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | isbn = 0-393-03394-5 | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parrish |first=Michael E. |url=https://archive.org/details/anxiousdecadesam0000parr_n1p1 |title=Anxious Decades: America in Prosperity and Depression, 1920–1941 |publisher=[[W.W. Norton]] |year=1992 |isbn=0-393-03394-5 |location=New York and London |ref=none |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{Cite book | last = Sullivan | first = Mark | author-link = Mark Sullivan (journalist) | title = Our Times, 1900–1925: Volume IV – The Twenties | year = 1936 | publisher = [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] | location = New York and London | edition = 1st | url = https://archive.org/details/ourtimes190019250006sull_w0z1 | via = Internet Archive | url-access = registration | ref = none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/ourtimes190019250006sull_w0z1 |title=Our Times, 1900–1925: Volume IV – The Twenties |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |year=1936 |edition=1st |location=New York and London |ref=none |author-link=Mark Sullivan (journalist) |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


Categories
Table of Contents