Kuman (also Chimbu or Simbu) is a language of Chimbu Province, Papua New Guinea. In 1994, it was estimated that 80,000 people spoke Kuman, 10,000 of them monolinguals;[2] in the 2000 census, 115,000 were reported, with few monolinguals.[1] Ethnologue also reported 70,000 second language speakers in 2021.[1]
Phonology
Like other Chimbu languages, Kuman has rather unusual lateral consonants. Besides the typical /l/, it has a "laterally released velar affricate" which is voiced medially and voiceless finally (and does not occur initially).[3] Based on related languages, this is presumably /k͡𝼄/, allophonically [ɡ͡ʟ̝] (see voiceless velar lateral fricative).
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | k | |
| prenasal/vd. | ᵐb ~ b | ⁿd ~ d | ᵑɡ ~ g | ||
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Fricative | s | ||||
| Tap | ɾ | ||||
| Lateral | l | ʟ | |||
| Semivowel | w | j | |||
- Voiced plosives are usually prenasal, but may fluctuate in word-initial position as ordinary voiced stops [b, d, ɡ].
- Voiceless stops /p, t, k/ are always aspirated [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] in word-initial position.
- /ɾ/ only occurs word-medially and word-finally. In word-final position it is heard as a trill [r].
- /s/ can be pronounced as [s], [ᵗs] in word-initial position.
- /w/ can be pronounced as [β] before front vowels /i, e/.
- /ʟ/ is heard as voiceless [ʟ̥] or fricative [𝼄], when preceding a consonant. It is heard as a voiced fricative [ʟ̝] when between vowels. It is also heard as an alveolar fricative [ɬ] before an /s/.[4][5]
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a | ||
- /a/ can be heard as either central [ä] or back [ɑ] in free variation.
- /e/ is pronounced as [ɛ] as a first vowel in a word.
- /o/ is pronounced in its lax form as [ɔ] before /ɾ/.
Syllable patterns
Syllable structure is (C)V(C). Any consonant can occur in onset position, but in coda position only /m/, /n/, /gɬ/, /l/ and /k/ can occur.[6]
Grammar
Kuman is an SOV language.
Vocabulary
The following basic vocabulary words are from Salisbury (1956)[7] and Trefry (1969),[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:[8]
gloss Kuman head bit-na; bɩtiɩno hair iŋguno; yungo ear kina-na; kunano eye gumutino; ongomit-na nose guma-ne; gumano tooth siŋguno tongue dirambino leg kati; kat-na louse numan dog aʝg; agi; akɬ ̥ pig bogla; bugɬa bird kua egg mugɬo; muɬo blood borɔmai; bořumai; maiam bone yambiřo; yombura skin gaŋgino breast amu-na; amuno tree endi man yagl; yakɬ ̥ woman ambu sun ande; andesuŋgua moon ba water nigl; nikɬ ̥ fire baugl; doŋga stone kombuglo; kombugɬo road, path konbo; konumbo name kaŋgin; kangi-ne eat neuŋgua one suařa two suo
References
- ^ a b c d Kuman at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ Kuman language (New Guinea) at Ethnologue (15th ed., 2005)
- ^ Foley, 1986:63, The Papuan languages of New Guinea
- ^ Pfantz, Daryl & Mary (2004). Kuman Language [Simbu Province]. Organized Phonological Data: SIL.
- ^ Piau, Julie A. (1985). Verbal Syntax of Kuman. Australian National University: Canberra.
- ^ a b Trefry, D (1969). A comparative study of Kuman and Pawaian. Canberra: ANU Asia-Pacific Linguistics / Pacific Linguistics Press. hdl:1885/146470.
- ^ Salisbury, R.F. 1956. The Siane Language of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea. Anthropos 51:447-480.
- ^ Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
Further reading
- Hardie, Peter. 2003. Is Kuman Tonal? An account of basic segmental and tonological structure in the Papuan language Kuman. MA thesis: Australian National University
- Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Kuman". World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
External links
- Kuman phonology and sample text
- Kaipuleohone has a Chimbu-Wahgi collection from Andrea L. Berez that includes Kuman language materials
- A number of collections in Paradisec include Kuman materials
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